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The Branner Geological Library
ULAHD-SIANroRDilVNKMt-VIIIVERSnr
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jJrf/^XOfi'VUA/ .
TWENTY-EIGHTH MNUAl REPORT
OF THE
u_. s
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
TO THE
SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
1906-1907
211663
. • • ••
• • • • •
• • •
* .••'•• :
• ^ ; '
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
Smithsonian Institution,
Bureau of American Ethnology,
Washington^ D. C, August 17, 1907.
Sm: I have the honor to submit herewith a report of the
operations of the Bureau of American Ethnology for the
fiscal year ended June 30, 1907.
Permit me to express my appreciation of your aid in the
work under my charge.
Very respectfully, yours,
W. H. Holmes, Chief.
Dr. Charles D. Walcott,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
3
CONTENTS
REPORT OF THE CHIEF
Page
Systematic researches 9
Special researches 15
Preservation of antiquities 17
Catalogue of linguistic manuscripts 18
Editorial work - 19
Publications 19
Library 20
Collections 20
Illustrations 21
Note on the accompanying papers 21
ACCOMPANYING PAPERS
Casa Grande, Arizona, by Jesse Walter Fewkes; plates 1-78; figures 1-54 25
Antiquities of the Upper Verde River and Walnut Creek Valleys, Arizona, by
Jesse Walter Fewkes; plates 79-102; figures 55-68 181
Preliminary report on the linguistic classification of Algonquian tribes, by
Truman Michelson; plate 103 (map) 221
Index 291
5
REPORT OF THE CHIEF
TWENTY-EIGHTH ANNUAL REPORT
or THB
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
W. H. Houues, CmsF
SYSTEMATIC RESEARCHES
The operations of the Bureau of American Ethnology, con-
ducted in accordance with the act of Congress making pro-
vision for continuing researches relating to the American
Indians, under direction of the Smithsonian Institution, have
been carried forward in conformity with the plan of opersr
tions approved by the Secretary July 19, 1906.
Systematic ethnologic researches have been prosecuted by
the scientific sta£F of the Bureau, assisted by a number of
collaborators who have been invited to conduct investiga-
tions for which they are especially qualified. The Bureau's
scientific sta£F is restricted to a small number of investigators
whose field of labor is necessarily limited, and it has always
been the policy of the Bureau to widen its scope by enlisting
the aid of specialists in various important branches. While
thus seeking to cover in the fullest possible manner the whole
field of American ethnology, it has sought with particular
care to piu*sue only such branches of research as are not
adequately provided for by other agencies, public or private.
The result sought by the Bureau is the completion of a sys-
tematic and weU-roimded record of the tribes before the
ever-accelerating march of change shall have robbed them
of their aboriginal characteristics and culture.
During the year researches have been carried on in New
Mexico, Arizona, Oklahoma, Louisiana, Mississippi, Florida,
9
• • ' .
10
BUBEAt; OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOOT
New York, and Ontario. The field work has not been so exten-
sive, however, as during most previous years, for the reason
that a number of the ethnologists had to be retained in the
office to assist in the completion of the'Handbook of American
Indians and in the proof reading of reports passing through
the press.
The Chief of the Bureau remained on duty in the office
during nearly the entire year. Administrative duties occu-
pied much of his time, but during the winter and spring
months he was called on to assist in the preparation of the
exhibit of the Smithsonian Institution at the Jamestown
Exposition, and in April in installing this exhibit. The com-
pletion of numerous articles for the Handbook of American
Indians, the revision of various manuscripts submitted for
publication, and the proof reading of reports and bulletins
claimed his attention. Aside from these occupations his
duties as honorary curator of the department of prehistoric
archeology in the National Museum and as curator of the
National Gallery of Art absorbed a portion of his time. The
Chief was called on also to assist in formulating the uniform
rules and regulations required by the Departments of the
Interior, Agriculture, and War in carrying out the provisions
of the law for the preservation of antiquities, to pass on
various applications for permits to explore among the antiq-
uities of the public domain,, and to furnish data needful
in the selection of the archeologic sites to be set aside as
national monuments. In addition he was able to give some
attention to carrying forward the systematic study of
aboriginal technology and art, on which he has been engaged
for several years, as occasion offered.
At the beginning of the year Mrs. M. C. Stevenson, ethnolo-
gist, was in the Indian village of Taos, New Mexico, continu-
ing her studies of the arts, habits, customs, and language of
this tribe begun during the previous year. Although the
field was new and the traditional conservatism of the tribe
made investigation in certain directions difficult or impossible
much progress was made, and when the work is completed
results of exceptional value will doubtless have been obtained.
ADMINISTRATIVE BEPOBT 11
In November Mrs. Stevenson visited Santa Clara pueblo
with the object of making studies of the people and their cul-
ture for comparative purposes, and observations were made
of the social customs and religious ceremonies of the people.
Afterward several days were spent in Santa F6, examining
the old Spanish records preserved in the archives of the His-
torical Society of New Mexico, with the view of learning
something of the early relations of the local tribes with the
Spanish invaders and with then- Spanish-speaking neighbors
of later times. Late in November Mrs. Stevenson visited
the pueblo of Zuni, the site of her former extended researches,
and spent some weeks in completing her studies of certain
phases of the native ritual and worship, of religious sym-
bolism as embodied in pictography and ceramic and textile
decoration, and in the revision of hel* list of plants employed
for food, medicine, and dyes. Numerous photographs and
stretches of ceremonies and ceremonial objects were made.
A number of changes were noted in the dramas and other
ceremonies since her last visit, and Zuni, heretofore presenting
at night the quiet somberness of an aboriginal village, has
now, when dusk falls, the appearance of an eastern town
with many lighted windows. Mrs. Stevenson notes that
changes are creeping steadily into all the pueblos, Taos per-
haps excepted, and is led to express the earnest hope that
the work of investigating the town-building tribes of the
Southwest be carried forward with all possible energy.
On April 1 Mrs. Stevenson returned to the office, where
during the remainder of the year she has been engaged in
the preparation of reports on her field researches.
Dr. Cyrus Thomas, ethnologist, has been employed the
greater portion of the year in assisting Mr. Hodge on Ihe
Handbook of American Indians, not only in the preparation
of separate articles, but also in assisting the editor on certain
lines of proof reading relating to omissions, uniformity in
names, etc. Such time as could be spared from these duties
was devoted to the preparation of a Catalogue of Books and
Papers relating to the Hawaiian Islands. For this purpose
the Library of Congress and other libraries in Washington
12 BUBEAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
were consulted, and a short trip to Worcester and Boston,
Massachusetts, was made for the purpose of examining the
libraries of those cities, which are the chief depositories in the
United States of the early publications of the missionaries in
Hawaii. The number of titles so far obtained is about 2,000.
Doctor Thomas assisted also with the official correspondence
on subjects with which he is particularly familiar, his attain-
ments as a student of ancient Mexican writings having proved
of special value in the examination of certain manuscripts in
the Cakchikel language submitted by the Librarian of . the
American Philosophical Society, of Philadelphia.
During the latter part of the previous fiscal year, in pur-
suance of his linguistic studies. Dr. John R. Swanton, eth-
nologist, was engaged in preparing an English-Natchez and
Natchez-English analytical dictionary, embodying all the
published and unpublished material available — that is, about
two thousand words and phrases; he also copied on cards
all the words and phrases collected by the late Doctor Gat-
schet from the Attacapa, Chitimacha, and Tunica Indians. At
the beginning of the fiscal year Doctor Swanton was engaged
in compiling a dictionary of the Tunica language similar to
that made for the Natchez. In the field of general ethnology
he excerpted and, when necessary, translated, all the avail-
able material bearing on the tribes of the lower Mississippi
Valley, and arranged for publication that portion dealing
with the Natchez.
On April 3 he left Washington to make investigations
among the tribal remnants of Louisiana and Oklahoma, and
visited the members of the Houma, Chitimacha, Attacapa,
Alibamu, Biloxi, Tunica, and Natchez tribes, and was able
definitely to establish the relationship of the Houma to the
Choctaw and to identify the Ouspie — ^a small people referred
to by the early French writers — with the Ofogoula. From
the Tunica and Chitimacha he collected several stories which
will be of importance in the endeavor to restore the mythology
of the tribes of this area, now almost a blank. In the Chero-
kee Nation (Oklahoma), contrary to expectation, Doctor
Swanton found several persons who still speak the Natchez
ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT 13
language. This discovery will necessarily delay the publi-
cation of the Natchez material already referred to, but if
prompt measures are taken, will insure the preservation of
that language in its completeness. At Eufaula (Creek Nation)
he made a slight investigation into the social organization
of the Creeks — enough to determine that much work still
remains to be done in that tribe entirely apart from language.
Doctor Swanton returned to the office June 7, and during
the remainder of the year was engaged in arranging and
collating the material collected by him.
Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, ethnologist, was employed in the
office during the first month of the year reading proofs of
his articles on the Aborigines of Porto Rico and Neighboring
Islands and on Antiquities of Eastern Mexico, for the Twenty-
fifth Annual Report of the Bureau. Part of August and all
of September were devoted to the preparation of a bulletin
on the Antiquities of the Little Colorado. He spent seven
months in Arizona, leaving Washington on October 15 and
returning the middle of May. During four months he super-
intended the work of excavation, repair, and preservation of
the Casa Grande Ruin, in Pinal County, Arizona, and in
March and April visited a nmnber of little-known and unde-
scribed ruins along Canyon Diablo and Grapevine Canyon,
gathermg material for his bulletin on The Antiquities of the
Little Colorado Valley. During May and June he was em-
ployed in the office, devoting his time to the preparation of
an account of the excavations at Casa Grande. The explo-
rations at Casa Grande were conducted under a special
appropriation disbursed directly by the Smithsonian Insti-
tution, and Doctor Fewkes's preliminary report has been
submitted to the Secretary. It is anticipated that a final
report on the work when completed will be published by the
Bureau of American Ethnology.
Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt was occupied during the earlier months
of the year in |)reparing and correcting matter for the Hand-
book of American Indians, devoting special attention to the
articles on the Iroquoian family, Iroquois, Mohawk, Montour,
Mythology, Nanabozho, Neutrals, Oneida, Onondaga, and
14 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
Ottawa, and to the lists of towns formerly belonging to the
Iroquois tribes.
From the 20th of January to the 23d of March, 1907, he
was engaged in field work among -the Iroquois tribes in
New York and in Ontario, Canada. The entire period
was devoted to collecting texts in the Onondaga and Mohawk
dialects, embodying the basic principles and the civil and
political structure and organization of the League of the
Iroquois and data relating , thereto. The Onondaga texts
aggregate about 27,000 words and the Mohawk texts about
1,500 words, making a total of 28,500 words. The following
captions will indicate sufficiently the subject-matter of
these texts: The Constitution of the League, the Powers of
the T'hadoda'ho', Amendments, Powers and Rights of the
Chiefs, Powers and Rights of the Women, Powers of the
Women Chiefs, Procedure on Failure in Succession, Powers
and Restrictions of "Pine Tree'' Chiefs, Procedure in Case
of Murder, Address of Condolence for Death in a Chief's
Family, Forest-edge Chanted Address of Welcome, The
Chant for the Dead, Interpretation of the Fundamental
Terms, Peace, Power, and Justice.
Mr. Hewitt also continued his duties as custodian of the
collection of linguistic manuscripts of the Bureau, the com-
pletion of the catalogue of which was entrusted to Mr. J. B.
Clayton, head clerk. He has also been called on to furnish
data for the correspondence of the office, more particularly
that portion relating to the Iroquoian tribes.
Mr. F. W. Hodge, ethnologist, has been engaged during the
entire year on the Handbook of American Indians, the edi-
torial work of which has proved extremely arduous and
difficult. This work is in two parts: Part I, A — ^M, was
issued from the press in March last, and the main body of
Part II was in type at the close of the fiscal year, though
progress in proof reading was exceedingly slow on account
of the great diversity of the topics treated and the difficulty
of bringing up to date numbers of articles, many of them
relating to obscure tribes and subjects.
During the entire fiscal year Mr. James Mooney, eth-
nologist, remained in the office, occupied chiefly on the
ADMINISTBATIVE REPORT 15
Handbook of American Indians and in the classification
of the large body of material previously obtained relating
to the tribes of the Great Plains. His extended article
on Indian Missions^ written for the Handbook, has been
made the subject of a special reprint, a small edition of
which was issued by the Bureau. Mr. Mooney has also
given valuable assistance in connection with the corre-
spondence of the Bureau, more especially that portion
relating to the languages of the Algonquian stock.
SPECIAL RESEARCHES
For a number of years Dr. Franz Boas, assisted by a
corps of philologists, has been engaged in the preparation
of a work on the American languages, to be published as a
bulletin of the Bureau, entitled "Handbook of American
Indian Languages," and it is expected that the manuscript of
the first part will be submitted for publication at an early
date. Of Part 1, sections relating to the languages of the
Eskimo and the Iroquois alone remain incomplete. Diu'ing
the sununer of 1906 Mr. Edward Sapir was engaged in col-
lecting data for the handbook, on the language of theTakelma,
residing at the Siletz Agency, Oregon, and toward the close
of the year Mr. Leo J. Frachtenberg began similar studies
among the Tutelo remnant on the Tuscarora Reservation in
Ontario, Canada.
Reports of the discovery of fossil remains of men of ex-
tremely primitive type in the vicinity of Omaha, Nebraska,
led to the assignment of Dr. AleS Hrdlidka, curator of
physical anthropology in the National Museum, to the duty
of visiting the University of Nebraska, at Lincoln, where the
remains are preserved, and also the site of their exhumation.
The examinations were made with the greatest care, and
the results are embodied in Bulletin 33 of the Bureau, which
was in press at the close of the fiscal year. The conclusion
reached by Doctor Hrdli6ka with respect to the age and
character of these remains is that they are not geologically
ancient, belonging rather to the mound-building period in
the Mississippi Valley, and that, although a number of the
16 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
crania are of low type, this was a characteristic appearing
among many comparatively recent mound-building tribes.
At the beginning of the fiscal year the Bureau was fortu-
nate enough to enter into arrangements with Prof. Herbert
E. Bolton, of the University of Texas, for recording the
history of the Texan tribes. During the early historical
period the French controlled and came into intimate relations
with the northern Caddo, hence the early history of this group
is to be found chiefly in French records; but with this excep-
tion it is mainly in Spanish documents, scattered and almost
wholly imprinted. These facts make the task in every sense
a pioneer one.
The Spanish manuscript sources available to Professor
Bolton, and upon which, aside from the printed French
sources, he has thus far mainly drawn, consist of (1) the
B6xar archives, a rich collection of perhaps 300,000 pages of
original manuscripts that accumulated at San Antonio during
the Spanish occupancy, now in the University of Texas;
(2) the Nacogdoches archives, a similar but much smaller
collection that accumulated at Nacogdoches and that is
now in the State Historical Library; (3) the Lamar papers, a
small collection of Spanish manuscripts, now in private
hands; (4) mission records preserved at the residence of the
Bishop of San Antonio; (5) copies of doctmients from the
Archivo General of Mexico, belonging to the University of
Texas and to Professor Bolton ; and (6) the various Mexican
archives. From these have been extracted a great many
notes, but much material yet remains to be examined.
During the year Professor Bolton's efforts have taken three
principal directions: (1) He has systematically and fully
indexed, on about 10,000 cards, a large amount of the early
material, including tribal, institutional, linguistic, historical,
and other data on the whole Texas field. (2) From this
material as a basis he has written for the Handbook of
American Indians many brief articles on tribes and missions,
aggregating about 20,000 words. (3) While in the analysis of
the materials and the making of the index cards he has
covered the whole field, in the final work of construction he
ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT 17
has begun the Caddoan tribes of eastern Texas^ with the
design of treating them separately. In this work Professor
Bolton has made commendable progress. He has already
written a detailed description, consisting of about 40,000
words, of the location, social and political organization,
economic life, religion, and ceremonial of the Hasfnai, com-
monly designated " Texas, *' as known and described by the
earliest European chronicles, accompanied with a map.
The task of writing a history of the Texas tribes is a great
one, and can be performed only by long and painstaking
effort, but its successful accomplishment promises an impor-
tant addition to our knowledge of the native Americans.
PRESERVATION OF ANTIQUITIES
With the object of assisting the departments of the Govern-
ment having custody of the public domain in the initiation of
measures for the preservation of the antiquities of the
country, the compilation of a descriptive catalogue of anti-
quities has been continued, and the preparation of bulletins
having the same end in view has also received every possible
attention. Bulletin 32, Antiquities of the Jemez Plateau, by
Edgar L. Hewett, was published and distributed during the
year, and Bulletin 35, Antiquities of the Upper Gila and Salt
River Valleys in Arizona and New Mexico, by Dr. Walter
Hough, was in page form at the close of the year, while bul-
letins by Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, on the Antiquities of the
Little Colorado Valley, and Edgar L. Hewett, on the Anti-
quities of the Mesa Verde, Colorado, were in course of prep-
aration.
The sum of $3,000, appropriated by Congress for the
excavation, repair, and preservation of Casa Grande Ruin,
in Arizona, was disbursed by the Smithsonian Institution,
Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, of the Biu-eau of American Ethnology,
having charge of the work. A brief preliminary report on
the first year's operations will appear in the Quarterly Issue
of the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections. A second
* appropriation of $3,000 is provided for continuing the work
during the coming year.
20903**— 28 ETH— 12 2
18 BUBEAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
During the year uniform rules and regulations intended to
serve in carrying out the recently enacted law for the preser-
vation of national antiquities were formulated and adopted
by the three departments having control of the public
domain. Under these, on recommendation of the Secretary
of the Smithsonian Institution, permits were issued for con-
ducting explorations on Indian reservations and in national
forests in Idaho and Wyoming, by the American Museum of
Natural History, New York, and among the ancient ruins on
the public lands in Navajo and Apache Counties, Arizona, by
the University of California. Arrangements were also made
with the Interior Department for carrying on explorations
at Casa Grande Ruin, Arizona, by the Smithsonian Institu-
tion. Under the same law during the year three important
archeologic sites were declared national monuments by the
President of the United States. They are as follows:
Chaco Canyon, in New Mexico, including several important
ruined pueblos; El Morro, New Mexico, commonly known as
Inscription Rock; and Montezuma Castle, in Arizona, an
important cliff-ruin.
CATALOGUE OF LINGUISTIC MANUSCRIPTS
The archives of the Bureau contain 1,626 manuscripts,
mainly linguistic, of which only a partial catalogue had
previously been made. In January Mr. J. B. Clayton, head
clerk, began the preparation of a card catalogue, which was
completed at the close of the year. The manuscripts were
jacketed in manila envelopes of uniform size, except where
bulk prevented, and were numbered from 1 to 1,626.
The catalogue comprises about 14,000 cards which give,
as completely as available data permit, the names of stock,
language, dialect, collector, and locality, as well as the date
of the manuscript. It was not possible in every instance to
supply all the information called for under these heads, but
the card has been made as complete in each case as the
information permitted. The cards have been arranged in
one alphabetical series, the names of the languages not only
under these languages in their proper alphabetic place, but
ADMINISTRATIVE BEPORT 19
also alphabetically under' their stocks. Under the name of
each collector his manuscripts are indexed under stocks,
languages, and dialects. The data in regard to ^' place" are
defective, and a number of the manuscripts are from unknowh
sources.
EDITORIAL WORK
Mr. Joseph G. Gurley, who was appointed to the position
of editor for a probationary period during the previous year,
was permanently appointed on August 16, 1906.
The editorial work of the year may be summarized briefly
as follows: The proof reading of the Twenty-fourth Annual
Report was completed and the work advanced to publication.
At the close of the year the Twenty-fifth Annual was prac-
tically finished, with the exception of the presswork, while
the Twenty-sixth Report was in page form, so that the work
was practically rieady for printing. Bulletin 32 was com-
pleted and published early in the year, and Bulletin 36 also
has been issued. Bulletins 33, 34, and 35 are in type, and
the proof reading on Bulletins 33 and 35 has progressed so far
that they can be put on the press at an early day.
For about three months the Bureau has had the efficient
services of Mr. Stanley Searles, who was courteously detailed
for the purpose from the proof-reading force of the Govern-
ment Printing Office. The editor has assisted to sdme
extent in the proof reading of the Handbook of American
Indians, Bulletin 30, which is in charge of Mr. F. W. Hodge.
PUBLICATIONS
During the year the Twenty-sixth Annual Report and
Bulletins 33, 34, 35, and 36 were forwarded to the Public
Printer. Bulletins 31 and 32 were published in July.
Part I of the Handbook of American Indians (Bulletin 30)
appeared in March and the Twenty-fourth Annual Report
in May. One thousand copies of the List of Publications of
the Bureau (Bulletin 36) and 500 copies of a special article
on Indian missions were issued in June. Fifteen hundred
copies of the Twenty-fourth Annual Report and the same
number of Bulletin 30, Part I, and Bulletin 32 were sent to
20 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
regular recipients. About 1,500 copies of Bulletin 30, Part
I, and 200 copies of the Twenty-fourth Annual, as well as
numerous buUetins and separates, were distributed in
response to special requests, presented for the most part by
Members of Congress.
The distribution of publications was continued as in
former years. The great increase in the number of libraries
in the country and the multiplication of demands from the
public generally have resulted in the almost inunediate
exhaustion of the quota of volumes (3,500) allotted to the
Bureau. Few copies of any of the reports remain six
months after the date of issue.
LIBRARY
The library remains in charge of Miss Ella Leary, who waa
able to bring the accessioning and cataloguing of books,
pamphlets, and periodicals up to date. In ^11, there have
been received and recorded during the year 760 volumes,
1,200 pamphlets, and the current issues of upward of 500
periodicals, while about 500 volumes have been bound at the
Government Printing Office. The library now contains
13,657 volumes', 9,800 pamphlets, and several thousand
copies of periodicals which relate to anthropology. The
purchase of books and periodicals has been restricted to such
as relate to anthropology and, more especially, to such as
have a direct bearing on the American aborigines.
COLLECTIONS
The collections of the year comprise large series of objects
obtained by Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, in his excavations at
Casa Grande Ruins, Arizona, conducted under the imme-
diate auspices of the Smithsonian Institution, and by Mrs.
M. C. Stevenson in Zuni and Taos pueblos, New Mexico.
Some of the minor collections are a cache of stone knife
blades from the vicinity of Tenleytown, District of Columbia,
obtained through the kindness of Mr. C. C. Glover; a series
of relics (fragments of pottery) from the temple of Diana at
Caldecote, presented by Mr. Robert C. Nightingale; relics
ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT 21
from the shell heaps of Popes Creek, Maryland, presented
by Mr. S. H. Morris, of Faulkner, Maryland; and a number
of stone implements and unfinished soapstone utensils from
the ancient quarries on Connecticut Avenue extended, Wash-
ington, District of Columbia, collected by Mr. W. H. Gill.
ILLUSTRATIONS
The division of illustrations was, as heretofore, in charge
of Mr. De Lancey Gill, who was assisted by Mr. Henry
Walther. One hundred and fifty-nine illustrations were
prepared for Bulletins 30, 33, 34, and 35, and a large number
of proofs of illustrations for the various volumes were
revised. The photographic work included the making of
277 n^atives required in the illustration work and 160
portraits of Indians . of visiting delegations. Negatives
developed for ethnologists retimiing from the field numbered
96. During the year a total of 11,078 photographic prints
was made.
Albert Samuel Gatschet, a distinguished philologist and
ethnologist, for many years connected with the Bureau,
died at his home in Washington, District of Columbia,
March 16, 1907.
W. H. Holmes, Chief.
NOTE ON THE ACCOMPANYING PAPERS
The papers included in this volume are not necessarily to be re-
garded as a part of the scientific results of the Bureau's researches ,
during tlie period covered by the administrative report, but are incor-
porated herein for the sake of convenience.
The report by Doctor Fewkes on the celebrated Casa Grande and
surrounding ruins in southern Arizona embodies the results of his
observations during excavations conducted therein throughout two
winter seasons, by means of special appropriations by Congress for
that purpose, together with a review of the general knowledge of
these ruins from the time they became known to the Spaniards in the
seventeenth century. Two papers on the subject of Casa Grande
were previously published under the auspices of the Bureau, one, by
Mr. Cosmos Mindelefl, in the Thirteenth Annual Report, the otlier,
by the same author, presenting an account of the repair of tlie main
22 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
ruin, in the Fifteenth Annual Report. It was not until the excara*
tions conducted by Doctor Fewkes, however, that an adequate
knowledge of the character and importance of the great house clus-
ters was obtained, and this knowledge, together with such historical
data as are available, is now embodied in the present volume as a per-
manent and final record. A preliminary report of Doctor Fewkes'
work at Casa Grande during the first season has been published in the
Smithsonian Miscellaneous CoUecHons.
A second paper by Doctor Fewkes summarizes the results of his
investigations of the Antiquities of the Upper Verde River and Wal-
nut Creek Valleys, Arizona. This report is preliminary in character
and is supplementary to the memoir by Mr. Cosmos Mindeleff pub-
lished in the Thirteenth Annual Report of the Bureau on the arche-
ology of the lower valley of the Verde. No excavations have yet
been conducted in the region of which Doctor Fewkes treats, yet suf-
ficient evidence has been gathered from a study of the architectural
features of the ruins now visible to enable a determination of the
western limits of Pueblo culture in central Arizona and to define the
area in which a distinct culture has its beginning.
The memoir by Dr. Truman Michelson, being a Preliminary Report
on the Linguistic Classification of Algonquian Tribes, with a map, is
based on the author's studies for the Bureau during the years 1910-
1912. The Algonquian tribes are now found to be divided linguist-
ically into four major groups, Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Arapaho, and
Eastern-Central. The results of Doctor Michelson's observations
elucidate many questions formerly existing with respect to the inter-
relations of the various Algonquian languages and dialects. The
map illustrating the memoir was prepared with the cooperation of
Dr. John R. Swanton.
F. W. Hodge,
Ethnologist-in-charge.
April, 1912.
ACCOMPANYING PAPERS
23
CASA GRANDE, ARIZONA
JESSE WALTEK FEWKES
/
I
4
25
Traditu
CONTENTS
Ptg»
Introduction 33
Work of excavation and repair 37
First season 37
Compound A 37
Second season 40
Compound B 40
Clan-house 1 , 41
Compounds C and D 42
itions 42
Fqnt*s legend 43
Legends from other sources 44
How a chief of another ''great house" enticed the women from Casa
Grande 45
How turquoises were obtained from Chief Morning Green 46
How Morning Green lost his power over the Wind gods and the Rain
gods 47
The birth of Hok 48
A creation l^end 49
A flood legend 49
History 53
Discovery and early accounts 54
Mange's narrative 55
"Rudo Ensayo " narrative 56
Garc^' narrative 57
Font's narrative 58
Grossman's narrative 61
Early American reports 62
Emory's narrative 63
Johnston's narrative 64
Bartlett's narrative 66
Hughes's narrative 68
Later American reports 68
Hinton's description 68
Bandolier's account 69
Cushing's researches 72
Fewkes's description ". 72
Cosmos Mindeleff's description .^ 79
Present conditipn 82
Main building 82
Construction 82
Rooms 82
Walls 83
Floors 84
Doorways and windows 85
Casa Grande mounds , 86
General description 86
Compound A 88
Southwest building 88
Northeast building 89
27
28 CONTENTS
Caaa Grande mounds — Continued.
Compound A — Continued. Page
Rooms on the west hall 90
Six ceremonial rooms 90
Central building 91
Font*s room 91
Rooms between Casa Grande and Font's room 92
Rooms adjoining the most northerly of the six ceremonial rooms 92
Northwest room 92
Rooms near east wall 92
Northeast plaza 93
Central plaza 93
East plaza 93
Southwest plaza 93
South court 93
Compound B 95
Pyramid A 97
Pyramid B 98
Rooms east of Pyramid B 99
Southeast plaza 100
North plaza 100
West area 100
Subterranean rooms 102
Compound C 102
Compound D 104
Compounds E and F 106
Clan-house 1 106
Refuse-heaps Ill
Reservoirs Ill
Irrigation ditches 113
Mescal pits 116
Methods of disposal of the dead 117
Minor antiquities 118
Mindeleff collection 1 19
Pinckley collection 120
Fewkes collection 120
Stone idols 120
Stone implements 122
Pottery 133
Specialized forms 133
Decoration of Casa Gtande pottery 137
Beams and rafters 142
Cane cigarettes 142
Shell objects 143
Bone implements 145
Wooden implements 146
Basketry 147
Fabrics 148
Copper bells 148
Pictographs 148
Seeds 150
Relation of compounds to pueblos 150
Summary of conclusions 153
Appendix: Catalogue of specimens from Casa Grande 161
ILLUSTRATIONS
Pass*
Plate 1. Adamsville (Sanford'a Mill) 34
2. Tcurikv^ki 35
3. Section of wall of ruin between Casa Qrande and Tcurikv^ki 35
4. Bird's-eye view of Gaaa Grande group of ruins, looking northwest ... 36
5. General view of Casa Grande group of ruins 37
6. Ground plan of Compound A 38
7. Bird's^ye view of Compound A, from the east 39
8. Casa Grande, from the southwest 43
9. Northeast comer of Casa Grande 43
10. West wall of Casa Grande, showing component blocks 79
11. Bird's-eye view of north half of Compound A 80
12. Bird's-eye view of Compound A, from the south 80
13. Southwest building of Compound A 88
14. Southwest building of Compound A, from the north 88
15. Northeast rooms, Compound A 89
16. Northeast rooms. Compound A 89
17. Area adjoining Casa Grande on the east 89
18. Six ceremonial rooms, Compound A 90
19. Ceremonial rooms and plaza, Compound A 90
20. West wall of Font's room, from the southeast 91
21. East rooms, Compound A 91
22. Rooms and corner, Compound A 92
23. Northwest comer, Compound A 92
24. Northeast comer, Compound A 93
25. Compound B, before Excavation , 95
26. Ground plan of Compound B 95
27. Bird's-eye view of Compound B, from the south 95
28. Bird's-eye view of Compound B, from the east 96
29. Northeast comer of Compound B 97
30. Comer and rooms. Compound B 97
31. Plaza and rooms, Compound B 97
32. Walls and rooms. Compound B 97
33. Plaza and walls. Compound B 97
34. Views of Pyramids A and B, Compound B 98
35. Comers of Compound B 98
36. Plazas and rooms, Compound B 99
37. Plaza and rooms, Compound B 99
38. Typical ancient reservoir, and rooms of Compound B 100
39. Walls of Compound B 100
40. Pictographs from Casa Grande and vicinity 101
41. Subterranean rooms and clay-pits . 102
42. Appearance of compound-walls before excavation 106
43. Bird's-eye view of Clan-house 1, from the northeast 106
44. Bird's-eye view of Clan-house 1, from the southwest 106
46. Clan-housel 106
29
30 ILLUSTRATIONS
Page
Plate 46. Annex to Clan-houfie 1. . . '. 108
47. Stone idols/ 121
48. Stone idols 121
49. Grooved stone axes 123
50. Grooved stone axes *. 123
51. Grooved stone axes 123
52. Grooved stone axes 124
53. Grooved stone axes 124
54. Grooved stone axes 124
55. Grooved stone ax, showing effects of secondary pecking 124
56. Stone hammers 124
57. Stone hammers 125
58. Problematical stone implements 125
59. Problematical stone implements 125
60. Grinding-stones 125
61. Stone implements 126
62. Grinding-stones 126
63. Manos 126
64. Mortars and pestle 127
65. Mortars 128
66. Problematical stone objects 129
67. Miscellaneous objects 130
68. Stone disks 131
69. Stone balls and disk 131
70. Stone shovels 131
71. Stone shovels 131
72. Pottery 133
73. Pottery 133
74. Clay objects : 137
75. Shell carvings 143
76. Wooden shovels or spades ; 146
77. Wooden paddles 146
78. Modem objects found on surface 147
Figure 1. Sketoh of Casa Grande ruin (Mange) 55
2. Ground plan of Casa Grande ruin (Mange) 55
3. Ground plan of Compound A (Font) , 59
4. Casa Grande in 1846 (after a drawing by Stanley) 64
5. Casa Grande in 1846 (Johnston) 65
6. Casa Grande in 1852 (Bartlett) 66
7. Casa Grande ruin, from the south 73
8. Interior of room, showing doorway and lines of floor 75
9. Interior of north room, looking west 76
10. Casa Grande ruin, looking northwest 78
11. Southeast comer of ruin, showing part of east wall 83
12. West wal 1 of Font's room (about 1880) 87
13. Ground plan of Compound B (made before completion of excava-
tions), showing height of walls in feet 96
14. Ground plan of Compound C 103
15. Ground plan of Compound D 104
16. Hand-prints and eroded base of wall of house in Compound D 105
IliLUSTBATIONS 31
Page
Figure 17. Oround plan of Clan-houae 1 107
18. SarcophaguB in room K of annex to Clan-house 1 108
19. Seat in room M. Clan-house 1, looking northeast 109
20. Seat in room M, Clan-house 1, looking southwest 110
21. Stone image of mountain sheep 122
22 . Stone ax 123
23. Stone ax 123
24. Stone ax 124
25. Grooved double-edge ax 126
26. Stone hammer 126
27. Dimib-bell shaped stone maul 127
28. Plummet-like object 127
29. Tool for rubbing or grinding pigment 128
30. Paint pestle from burial in annex room M, Clan-house 1 129
31. Perforated stone slab of unknown use 129
32. Perforated stone disk used in game 130
33. Knife or projectile point 131
34. Stone balls 132
35. Stone bead 133
36. Stone ornament 133
37. Ornament of jasper 133
38. Tooth-shaped pendant of stone 133
39. Shovel with handle 134
40. Three-legged earthenware dish 135
41. Pottery fragment bearing bird's head 135
42. Bowl bearing bird's head decoration (restored) 136
43. Spindle whorls 137
44. Fragment of burnt clay having lines incised in surface 138
45. Earthenware bowl decorated with triangle pattern 139
46. Triangle design decorating bowl 140
47. Design decorating vase 141
48. Bracelet of Pectunculus shell 144
49. Shell (Conus) finger ring decorated with incised design 144
50. Shell fr<^ 144
51. Copper bells 148
52. Incised pictc^raph of "the House of Tcuhu'' 149
53. Model of Pima .circular house constructed south of Compound A . . 153
54. Typical modem Pima rectangular dwelling 154
I
CASA GRANDE, ARIZONA
By Jesse Walter Fewkes
INTRODUCTION
■
The ruin known by the Spanish name Casa Grande, "Great House/'
is situated near the left bank of the Gila River about 12 miles from
the site of the present town of Florence, Ariz. Inmiediately after
the discovery of Casa Grande by Father Kino, in 1694, there arose a
legend, which became persistent, that it was one of the halting places
of the Aztec on their way south, or that it was connected in some way
with the southern migrations of Mexican tribes. We find it desig-
nated also, in early, and even in later writings, Casa Montezuma, or
the House of Montezuma, a name that in late years has passed prac-
tically out of use, the ruin being now universally known, among both
Americans and Mexicans, as Casa Grande, the name given it by
Father Kino. The Pima Indians, who dwell in the neighborhood,
claim Casa Grande as the habitation of one of their ancient chiefs,
and designate it by several names, among which are V6aki, Old
House; CivanavAaki, Old House of the Chief; and Sialim Civanav6aki,
Old House of Chief Morning Green.
Casa Grande was a ruin when discovered and has not been perma-
nently inhabited since it was first seen by a white man. The identity
of its builders has furnished a constant theme for speculation from the
discovery of the ruin to the present time. Although it has been
ascribed to the Aztec, there is no evidence that the ancient people
who inhabited this building were closely related to any tribes of the
Mexican plateau, whose culture, as indicated by archeologic remains,
was different from that of the Pueblos, or sedentary tribes of New
Mexico and Arizona. The age of Casa Grande and contiguous
remains is unknown, but there is good reason to believe that settle-
ments on their site were older than most of the present pueblos or
cliff-dwellings. The Pima claim, however, that it is not so old as
ruins of the same general character situated near Phoenix, on Salt
River, a short distance from its junction with the Gila.
20903**— 28 BTH— 12 3 33
34 CASA GRANDE, ARIZONA [eth. ann. 28
Some of the Pima formerly had a superstitious fear of Casa Grande
which at times led them to avoid it,^ especially at night, and many
do not now willingly sleep or camp near this remarkable monument
of antiquity — a feeling that has given rise to stories that Casa Grande
is haunted. * It is beUeved by some Indians that at times flames issue
from the ruin; several Pima women were seen to cross themselves
when passing near it.
Although Casa Grande is situated a considerable distance from the
nearest railroad station, it can be conveniently reached by carriage
either from the town of Florence, or from Casa Grande station on the
Southern Pacific Railroad. The route to the ruin via Florence is
slightly shorter than that from Casa Grande station, enabling one to
make the visit and return in a single day. There are a hotel and
livery stables in both towns, but the visitor should provide for his
own refreshment at the ruin, where there is a good well with abundant
water.^
After leaving Florence the road to Casa Grande follows the left
bank of the Gila westward, crossing a level stretch and skirting for a
few miled the base of a low gravelly mesa. The first aboriginal object
of interest met with is a group of Indian huts situated on the left
of this road. This settlement is of recent origin; the rectangular
houses composing it are built in the old style and inhabited by Pa-
pago. Near it looms a low white mound indicating an ancient ruin,
which will well repay a brief visit. Following the road farther west-
ward, the traveler passes through a cluster of houses known as Adams-
ville (pi. 1), formerly called Sanford's Mill, an old Mexican settlement;
this consists of a double row of rambling roofless houses built of
adobe. Although Adamsville is one of the "dead'' towns of Arizona
and for the most part is deserted, a Mexican family still fives in a fairly
weU preserved room at the west end of the village. The waUs of an
old gristmill are still pointed out and those of the former hotel can
still be traced. This settlement was once an important station ' on
the stage-coach route between Tucson and Phoenix, and many stories
are current regarding the stirring events which took place in these
now tenantless rooms when Apache roamed unrestricted the plains
of Arizona.* The foundations of the adobe walls have been much
1 This is not true of most of the Pima. While engaged in relating to the writer the accompanying legends
of Casa Orande, Thin Leather slept for several weeks in the west room of the ruin. The hooting of the owls
which nest in the upper walls may add to the Ptmas' dread of it, hut did not seem to disturb him. Several
rattlesnakes have been killed in this room, the record of the area covered by the mounds being 20 for the year
the writer was engaged in work on Compound A.
s The resident custodian, Mr. Frank Pinckley, has built his house in Compound A, and has likewise dug
a well, no water having been available when he took up his residence at the ruin. On acooimt of the
extreme heat in midsummer, the autumn, winter, or spring months are the best seasons of the year in
which to visit the ruins at Casa Grande.
* Several persons in Florence, known to the writer, who were bom in Adamsville, remember when it was a
flourishing town.
« If the walls of this place could speak they oould recount many bloodcurdling tales of early Arixona
history. The son of the Pima chief, Antonio Asul, is said to have been killed in this village.
\
V
^T^
BUREAU OF AMEfilCAN ETHNOLOOy TWENTV-EIQHTH ANNUAL HEPOflT F
E SOUTHWEST
■ROM THE SOUTHEAST
TCURIKVAAKI
^
PBWKES] INTRODUCTION 85
weakened by rains and in a few years the buildings now standing will
faU to the ground.
Somewhat off the main road to Casa Grande, about half a mile south
of AdamsviUe, on a plateau or mesa, rises a cluster of mounds^ indicat*
ing the site of a settlement called by the Pima Tcurikv&aki {tcurikf
''bisnaga cactus"; vdaki, "old house'*), which is well worth visiting.
This ruin (pi. 2) is approached from the Casa Grande highway by a
rarely traveled road, not much more than a wagon track, branching
from the main thoroughfare a short distance west of the town. The
4 standing walls of a house ' that rise considerably above the surface of
^ one of the mounds resemble in structure and general appearance those
c of Casa Grande. Among the mounds in this cluster is one oval in
o shape with a central depression indicating a former tank or reservoir.
Near by, the surrounding wall of a large compound, including a high
z mound, suggests that Tcurikv&aki was formerly a place of consid-
erable importance. From this ruin there is a road to Casa Grande
c which passes a large, conspicuous mound, the site of another ancient
< Indian settlement. This mound (pi. 3) is instructive because it shows
o sections of a wall formerly inclosing a rectangular area, suggesting
< the surrounding wall at Casa Grande.
^ ■ If the visitor follows the direct route from Adamsville to Casa
2 Grande Mdthout making a detour to the Indian mounds above men-
Ij tioned, he can discern the roof, of corrugated iron, painted red, for
^ some distance before he arrives at his destination. On each side of
^ the road the traveler passes several small mounds belonging to the
2 Casa Grande Group, which are situated not far from the large pyram-
5 idal elevations marking Compound B.
The high range on the north side of the Gila in full sight of the
^ traveler the whole way from Florence to Casa Grande is called Super-
stition Mountains. This range separates part of the Gila Valley from
the valley of the Salt River; it is a very wild and broken area, ending
precipitously on the south and the west. Concerning this region
many Pima legends are extant, the best known of which recounts how
a flood once covered the whole earth.' To this place an antediluvian
chief, named White Feather, followed by his band, once retreated,
climbing to the top of these mountains for safety. The water is said
to have risen in the valley to a level half-way up the mountain side,
I The ruins in the OilarSalt Valley reeembllni; Casa Grande are considered in another report, Prehlstorid
Bnins of the Qlla Valley (hi amWuofUan MheeUaneout OoOectioru, No. 187S).
t The writer has been informed that Dr. Carlos Montezuma was sold in this house by a Pima Indian.
s This is supposed to be the flood the legend of which is still related by old men of the PatU clans of
Walpi, who say it was the cause of their leaving Palatkwabi, the mythic southern home of this people.
The Pima have a legend of a place in southern Ariiona out of which at one time water gushed and cov*
ered the whole earth. Here they made offerings, which are continued even to the present day. They
call the place by a name mwming ''where women cry/' for a child was once sacrificed there to cause the
waten to subside.
36 CAS A GRANDE, ARIZONA [eth.ann.28
where there is now a stratum of white rock* which is clearly visible
from Casa Grande. White Feather is said to have taken his stand
on top of one of the pinnacles, whence he addressed his followers, re-
minding them that he had exhausted Ms magic power in vain efforts
to stay the flood. But one supreme resource to control the rising
water still remained. As he spoke, he held aloft in the palm of one
hand a medicine-stone, invoking the aid of the Sky god, who in reply
sent a bolt of lightning that shattered the stone. But as the chief
turned to his followers they were found to be petrified where they
stood, and there they still stand as rocky pinnacles.'
There are many Indian shrines in Superstition Mountains, and as
the wind whistles through the deep recesses the Indian fancies he
can hear the moans of the shades of the dead who inhabit those
dreary canyons.
Another less conspicuous hill, called Walker's Butte, on the north
side of the Gila not far from the river bank, is constantly in sight
for a long distance from the road from Florence to Casa Grande.
Near its base ruined housewaUs wero discovered, and other remains
of aboriginal life, as pictographs, can be found on lava rocks in the
neighborhood.
The traveler along this road catches glimpses also of the lofty Santa
Catalina Mountains far to the southeast, while to the south rises the
distant Casa Grande Range. A solitary peak called Pichacho Moun-
tain is a spur of a range of the same name that lies to the southeast,
marking the position of a pass throu^ which the early travelers
entered this region from Mexico. Near this peak was situated in
old times a Pima settlement called Akutchin C mouth of the creek"),
inhabited from early Spanish times down to a comparatively late
date. The mountain itself, known as Tcacca by the Pima, is also
associated with Pima legends of the country.' The aroa about the
ruin of Casa Grande is broken by but few elevations.
The vegetation in the vicinity of Casa Grande consists mainly of
desert growth — ^mesquite trees, sagebrush, and giant cacti. After the
spring rains begin many herbs appear, some bearing small flowers
which carpet the earth with variegated colors. Long before one comes
to the largest mounds (pi. 4) at Casa Grande, fragments of pottery
and other indisputable evidences of former human occupancy may
be detected on the surface of the ground. At a Mexican adt)be house I
a few miles from the ruins, near the Gila River, can be traced a long
ditch, filled in here and there, marking the site of the prehistoric
1 A feature of the huge butte here rising to the right of the road to RooseTelt Dam, resembHiig in Cxm
an eagle, by which name it is known to the Pima.'
s These ptainacles are in plain sight from the road from Mesa to Roo8e\'elt Dam. They are results of ero-
sion, the work of which on a vast scale b visible In many places on the slopes of the SopeistitlMi ICoontabis.
* There are still a few Pima and Papago huts in the neighborhood.
TWENTY-EIGHTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 5
T-r
^
i
f
COi97POuND
D
^•^'^
CLAiN House
1
RUINS
FBWKB8] WORK OF EXCAVATION AND REPAIR 37
irrigation canal, resembling a modem ditch in approximately the
same place.
There is no considerable outcrop of rock in the immediate vicin-
ity of Casa Grande and the neighboring plain is almost wholly devoid
0[ stones large enough to use in the construction of walls; neverthe-
less, several rooms have stones of considerable size built into the
foundations of their walls. ^
WORK OF EXCAVATION AND REPAIR
The excavation of the mounds of Casa Grande was conducted by
the Smithsonian Institution by means of appropriations made by
Congress for the purpose, the work extending through two winters
(1906-07 and 1907-08). The first season's field work was limited to
what is here designated Compoimd A; the second to Compound B
and Clan-house 1, together with considerable work on Compounds
C and D.' (PL 5.)
First Season
compound a
In the first season the excavations were begun at the base of the
two fragments of walls rising from the ground at the southwest angle
of Compound A. At the beginning of the work the writer was wholly
ignorant of the existence of a wall surrounding the area now caUed
Compound A, the object of opening the mound at the base of the
outside fragment being to repair the base with cement to prevent its
falling. With the exception of several low mounds, more or less
scattered, the area about the historic building, Casa Grande, was
I Certain implemeiits from Casa Orande, as batchets and axes, were apparantiy made from stones col-
lected in the river bed or washed into view along the arroyos.
> The manual work of excavation and repair was performed by Pima Indians together with several white
men who voluntarily assisted, among whom should be mentioned the custodian, Mr. Frank Pinckley, and
Messrs. Hugh Hartshome, Thomas Ackerman, the late Thomas Ray, and others.
Road building, cutting away underbrush, grading, and incidental work, necessary to open the ruin to
visitors, consumed some time during both seasons.
In order to aid those who wish to know when early discoverers visited Casa Orande, and to enable
them to follow descriptions where the designations Compounds A, B, C, etc., are used in this report,
signboards bearing that information were erected at convenient places. Wooden steps were also placed
wherever they could facilitate mounting to the tops of the pyramids.
The Pima workmen above mentioned were natives of the neighboring town of Blackwater, a collection
of modem houses, settled by colonists from Casa Blanca. At the time of the discovery of Casa Qrande and
for several years thereafter, there was a Pima settlement called Uturituo ("the comer"), a few miles from
Gasa Grande, near the Oila. The natives were driven out of this settlement, the site of which is said to have
been washed away as the result of a change in the course of the river. The writer has heard an old Pima
call Casa Grande Uturituc, owing to a confusion of localities.
San Juan Capistrano de Uturitucis thusreferred to by Father Pedro Font (1775): "This town consists of
smalUodges of the kind that the GIleAos use . . . They lodged me in a large hut [possibly like the "Cap-
illa' ' on the San Pedro) which they oonstmcted to that end and in front of it they placed a large cross,
pagans though they were ... In the afternoon I went to the town with Father Oaroes and the
governor, Papago de (}oJet, to see the fields. Thefr milptu are inclosed by stakes, cultivated in sections
with fine canals or draws, and are excessively clean. They are close by the town on the bcmks of the river,
which is large in the se^n of the freshets."
38 CA8A GRANDE, ARIZONA [eth. anx. 28
level, no sign of the boundary wall of the compound projecting
above the surrounding plain.
On excavating to the base of the western, or outermost, of the two
fragments it was discovered that the true foundations are deep below
the eroded part and that a thick wall extends north and south from
that point. This wall was found to continue to a point 420 feet to
the north, where it turns at right angles, forming the northwest
comer of the compound, thence running 230 feet in an easterly
direction. Thus was brought to light the west wall, the longest wall
of any compound in the Casa Grande Group of ruins. It was then a
simple task to trace the three remaining walls, those forming the
north, south, and east sides of the compound. (PL 6.)
After the surrounding walls of Compound A had been traced
throughout their whole length by excavation, a trench being dug
along the outside of each to its foundations, it was necessary to
remove the earth that had accumulated without and within the
inclosure through the years that had passed since Compound A had
been abandoned. This was an undertaking of magnitude. When
Casa Grande was inhabited the wall of the compoimd was probably
7 feet high. The upper part (about 3 feet) had fallen level with the
ground, about 4 feet above the base, and the debris had filled in
along the base throughout the whole length and breadth of the
compound.^ This great accumulation of clayey soil was removed by
means of scrapers and transported to the distance of about 50 feet
from the compound.
In addition to the removal of the earth that had fallen outside the
compound,' on the four sides, a drain was dug from the base of each
wall along its entire length. This was constructed with sufficient
incline to convey water from the wall into a larger ditch extending
from the northeast comer to a depression 200 feet away. Similar
removals of earth were made and similar ditches constructed on all
sides of Compound A; the aggregate length of the drains thus made
about this compound is not far from 1,500 feet.
The construction of the main drainage ditch just mentioned was
a work of considerable magnitude, as it was necessary, in order to
insure the requisite fall, to cut through several elevations or refuse-
heaps, that obstructed the course. In addition to the draining
ditches above described, a layer of clay coated with a thin layer of
cement was placed along the bases of the walls of Compound A to
prevent undermining and rapid destruction of their foundations; in
some places Mexican adobes were laid on top of the wall to shed
water and preserve it from erosion. The foundations of the waUs
t A prdlmiiuury raport on the ezcavatioiu made in 1906-7 wu published in SmUk$(mlan lilaeeUaneout
OoUediofu, L (No. 1772), 1907.
* The aocomolation of earth on the east side near the southeast angle was not removed. It is conjectured
that this part of the compound was oooe occupied by small huts, the habitations of the people.
F1WKB8] WORK OF EXCAVATION AND REPAIR 89
were pierced at intervak to prevent water from accumulating in the
compound.
The excavations within the compound were even more extensive
than those outside; from this inclosure a larger amount of debris had to
be removed to a greater distance than from the area outside the walls.
A block of rooms was excavated in the southwest mound from
which rise the two fragments of walls above mentioned. It is
instructive to note that the east walls of these rooms are worn down
more than the west waJls, which are still several feet high, and that
the effects of erosion are also more marked on the east side of the
historic structure of Casa Grande. The condition may be explained
in this way: Originally the east walls were probably not so high as
the west walls, a terrace, or platform, being situated on the former
side, but the prevailing storms, which come from the east, beating
with greater force against the eastern walls, caused them to disin-
tegrate more rapidly.
The now conspicuous row of six ceremonial rooms extending from
the northeast comer of the historic building to the north wall of the
compound presented the appearance before excavation merely of a
low ridge. This ridge, or mound, was a' favorite camping place for
visitors, especially when the sun was high, the walls of the building
making here a pleasant shade. The excavation and removal of
the earth from these six rooms and the clearing away of the fallen
material from the f oimdations of the outer walls proved to be a work
of considei'able magnitude.'
The removal of the earth from the plaza in the northwest part of
C!ompound A to the former level of its floor, the excavation of the
room in the northwest angle, and the transportation of the accumu-
lations of earth alone necessitated the employment of many workmen
for a considerable period. Much time was consumed in clearing out
the large cluster of rooms on the northeast side of the compound.
When excavation began at this point nothing was visible but a large
moimd.
The massive-waUed building east of Casa' Grande, the west wall of
which rose several feet above the surface of the mound, was not
difficult to excavate, as the earth could be readily removed and the
distance to the dump was not great. The southeast section of the
compound, which presents no conspicuous elevation, still awaits
excavation. (PI. 7.)
To show the supposed character of the habitations of the ancient
people of Compound A, a Pima circular hut (fig. 53) was built near
the southwest angle, outside the inclosure.
> Some walla which aspedally needed protection against the elemcDta were capped with adobe bricks to
prevent tfcaion.
I The nomber of cabio yards of earth leoiOYed fhnn this vicinity was not aooorately determined, bnt
some Idea of the aggregate may be given by the statement that 10 scrapers were employed for almost a
month in aooomplishing this result.
40 CASA GRANDE, ARIZONA [eth. ann. 28
Second Season
The field work carried on in 1907-8 was devoted to Clan-house 1
and to Compounds B, C, and D, begmnmg with an attempt to deter-
mine the position of the surrounding wall of Compound B. The only
indication of the existence of this wall was a low '^platform/' or
elevation, mentioned by several authors, rising a few feet above the
surface of the plain.
COMPOUND B
The boundary wall of this compound was first encountered at its
southeast angle and the first section to be laid bare was the south
wall. Having determined the course and length of this wall, the
d6bris was removed from its foundation so that the wall stood clear
for an average height of 3 feet. A drain was dug about 5 feet
from the base to carry the surplus water into a depression a few
hundred feet northwest of the compound.
The determination of the east wall of Compound B was somewhat
more difficult than that of the north and west walls because of a
reconstruction, or change .in direction, possibly by way of repair
by the builders, at the southeast comer. The east wall was found
to be for the greater part more massive than the south wall and
more dilapidated on top than the other waUs. The excavation of
the north wall followed the completion of the work on the east, the
d6bris about it being removed by means of scrapers. . Provision
was made for turning all drainage to the northwest corner where the
level was somewhat lower than elsewhere; thence the water was
conducted into a depression a hundred feet away.
The subterranean room under tlie northeast wall of Compound B
was roofed over to prevent it being filled with water, which in course
of time would have destroyed the floor and other evidences of its
existence. The wall of the compound, which passes over this sub-
terranean room, was in danger of faUing. In order to prevent tliis
a support made of masonry was placed under it, i:e8ting on the floor
of the underground room.
More earth had to be removed from the base of the west wall of
Compound B than from all the others combined, a fact which suggests
that formerly this wall was higher than the others but that a con-
siderable portion had fallen or been worn down, burying the founda-
tions. Th^ task of carrying away earth that had fallen from *he
walls on the outer side and the removal of d6bris that had washed
over it from a neighboring refuse-heap was a considerable one. When
this work was finished the wall stood, in the middle, about 10 feet
in height.
The excavation of the plazas and rooms adjoining the two great
pyramids, or inclosed mounds, of Compound B was not so difficult
FEWKE8) WORK OF EXCAVATION AND REPAIR 41
as in the case of Compound A, but the removal of the earth was
more tedious, it being necessary to carry the material a greater
distance. The difficulties of work in Compound B were somewhat
increased by the presence of successive floors, one below another.
This condition was found on the tops of the mounds and in the
plazas, necessitating careful excavation by hand.
The outlines of the many fragile-walled houses supported by rows
of posts could readily be followed, but as the supports were much
decayed, provision for the preservation of evidence of the existence
of these rooms, which otherwise under the torrential summer rains
would soon be destroyed, had to be made. To indicate the positions
of the upright supports of these walls, new posts of cottonwood were
inserted in the old holes, most of which were found to be filled with
fine yellow sand and the decayed remains of the former supports.
The fireplaces in the middle of the floors of these fragile-walled
rooms, opposite the entrances, were protected with wooden covers.
The floors were smoothly made and evidently had been tramped
down.
The bases of all the walls exposed by the excavation work were
strengthened with cement, so that they might resist longer the action
of the water.
CLAN-HOUSE 1
The excavation and repair of Clan-house 1 were satisfactorily
completed. No waUs were visible when work began, but two low
ash-colored mounds were traceable among the mesquite trees, indicat-
ing the site of a large building; there was no means of knowing, how-
ever, the shape or size of the rooms later brought to light. As work
progressed on the larger, or more westerly, of these mounds, the west
wall of a lai^e building was the first to be traced. Having determined
the position of the southwest comer, the removal of earth from the
south and west walls was easily accomplished. The earth was hauled
some distance from the walls by means of scrapers and later provi-
sion was made for diverting the surface drainage on these two sides.
The outside of the east and north walls was similarly treated. Tem-
porary roadways left about midway in the west wall were utilized for
hauling the material removed from the central room. The plaza east
of this room was filled originally with earth to the level of the top of
the compound waUs; the removal of this to the level of the floors
of the central room and plaza required about a month. The bases
of the walls were treated with cement and shallow drains parallel
with them were dug to carry away the surplus water.
The presence of unusually large accumulations of earth in the
rooms of Clan-house 1 can not be accounted for wholly by the falling
42 CASA GRANDE, ABIZONA [sth.ann.28
of the material eroded from the top of the walls^ but was due in part
to drifted sand, which for the greater part filled the rooms of the
compounds. The sandstorms left deposits at the bases of the walls,
both within and without, the sand often drifting like snow; but
when the drift was once arrested by the waUs and by roots of mes-
quite trees, and weighted down by the adobe that fell from the
walls, the rooms and waUs were eventually covered.
COMPOUNDS C AND D
The amount of excavation and repair work on Compounds C and
D was not so extensive as on Compounds A and B. Neither of
the former contained high mounds, and apparently neither ever had
included extensive buildings with thick high walls. The walls of the
central building of Compound C were low and few in number. The
corners and surrounding walls in Compounds C and D having been
determined, part of the accumulated earth was removed, provision
being made for protection of the wall where necessary. In both
these compounds the surrounding wall had been worn down almost
to the level of the plain, a low platform being the only visible evidence
of its former existence.
TRADITIONS
The question. Who built Casa Grande ? has been repeatedly asked
the Pima Indians dwelling in the neighborhood from the time of its
discovery in 1694 and their answer has generally come to be, the
"Hohokam,'* or Ancients. But if their old men are interrogated
more closely they frequently mention the name of a chief {dvan)
called Morning Green, who, they affirm, constructed the buildings
and ruled over the inhabitants. There is internal evidence that the
legends they relate of this chief are not inventions of the modem
Pima; at all events incidental references to him as master of the
Wind gods and the Rain gods date back to Father Font's narrative
in 1775. Modem variants of the legends are probably somewhat
embellished, however, by repetition from one generation to another.^
The Pima conception of this chief is best indicated by quoting a few
folk-tales, some of which have not been published while others have
been known for many years.
> Dr. Frank Rossell's ezioeltent monogmph on The Plnm Indians {tSth Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Btknol.)
sbows the wealth of Pima (or Marioopa7) material still available. This material, like all legends, can he
treated in a scientific way in the interpretation of culture and should not he rejected by archeologists.
Ethnology is simply culture-history, of which archeology is one chapter.
Neglect of ethnology in the study of the archeology of the American Indians is unfortunate. Some
of the Pima told the writer that tJs interpreter had made mistakes in inteipretatlons, so that what is
given here can be regarded only as approximations to truth. As will appear in many of these legends,
the chief of Casa Orande is exalted into a cultua>hero, who had extraordinary magic powers; insome aloiiea
he to repreeented as the supernatural oilspiing of the sun and a maid.
TRADITIONS 43
There still survive among the Mexicans living in the neighborhood
of Casa Grande (pis. 8> 9) a few stories connecting Montezuma with
this ruin. One day whUe the writer was at work on Compound B, an
old Mexican who visited the place said that several years ago as he was
driving past the ruin from Florence to his farm, which is south of the
main building, a man with a long white beard, clad only in a single
short garment, stopped him and without a word took his seat on the
wagon. When they arrived at Casa Grande the mysterious personage
alighted and without speaking entered the ruin; he was never seen
again. The Mexican asked whether the writer thought this strange
^rson was Montezuma the old chief.
FoNT^s Legbnd
This legend (1775) contains the following story (related to Father
Font by the governor of Uturituc), which is the oldest legendary
account of Casa Grande, or Clvanav&aki,^ extant, from Pima sources:
He [the governor] said —
That in a very distant time there came to that land a man who, because of his
evil disposition and harsh sway, was called The Bitter Bfan; that this man was old
and had a young daughter; that in his company there came another num who was
young, who was not his relative nor anything, and that he gave him in marriage
his daughter, who was very pretty, the young man being handsome also, and that
the said old man had with him as servants the Wind and the Storm-cloud. That the
old man b^an to build that Casa Grande and ordered his son-in-law to fetch beams
for the roof of the house. That the young man went far off, and as he had no ax nor
anything else with which to cut the trees, he tarried many dajrs, and at the end he
came back without bringing any beams. That the old man was very angry and told
him he was good for nothing; that he should see how he himself would bring beams.
That the old man went very far off to a moimtain range where there are many pines
and, calling on God to help him, he cut many pines and brought many beams for
the roof of the house. That when this Bitter Man came, there were in that land neither
trees nor plants, and he brought seeds of all and he reaped very large harvests with
his two servants, the Wind and the Storm-cloud, who served him. That by reason
of his evil disposition he grew angry with the two servants and turned them away and
they went very far off; and as he could no longer harvest any crops through lack of the
servants, he ate what he had gathered and came near dying of hunger. That he sent
his son-in-law to call the two servants and bring them back and he could not find them,
seek as he might. That thereupon the old man went to seek them and, having found
them, he brought them once more into his service, and with their aid he had once more
laige crops, and thus he continued for many yean in that land; and after a long time
they went away and nething more was heard of them.
He [the governor] said also, that after the old man there came to that land a
man called The Drinker, and he grew angry with the people of that place and he
eent much water so that the whole country was covered with water, and he went
to a very high mountain range which is seen from there, and which is called The
Mountain of the Foam (Sierra de la Espuma), and he took with him a little dog and a
coyote. (This mountain range [Superstition Moimtains] is called * ' of the foapi " because
at the end of it, which is cut off and steep like the comer of a bastion, there is seen high
> The term ClmnavAaki, which has heen translated "chief of the aocleot house," is afeneral term applied
also to other coMf ^rendct in the Oila-Salt Valley.
44 CASA GRANDE, ABIZONA [eth. ann. 28
up near the top a white brow as of rock, which also continues along the range for a good
distance, and the Indians say that this is the mark of the foam of the water which rose
to that height.) That The Drinker went up, and left the dog below that he might
notify him when the water came too far, and when the water reached the brow of the
foam the dog notified The Drinker, because at that time the animals talked, and the
latter carried him up. That after some days The Drinker Man sent the Rose-sucker
(Chuparosaa) to Coyote to bring him mud; they brought some toliim and of the mud
he made men of different kinds, and some turned out good ani others bad. That
theee men scattered over the land, upstream and downstream; after some time he
sent some men of h\a to see if the other men upstream talked; these went, and returned
saying that although they talked, they had not underst-ood what they said, and that
The Drinker Man was very angry because these men talked without his having
given them leave. That next he sent other men downstream to see those who had
gone that way and they returned saying that they had received them well, that they
spoke another tongue but that they had understood them. Then The Drinker Man
told them that those men downstream were the good men and there were such as far
as the Opa, with whom they are friendly, and there were the Apache, who are their
enemies. He [the governor] said also that at one time The Drinker Man was angry
with the people and killed many and transformed them into aaguaros (giant cacti),
and on this account there are so many saguaros in that country . . . Furthermore,
he said that at another time The Drinker Man was very angry with the men and
caused the sun to come down to bum them, and was making an end of them; that he
now begged him much not to bum them, and therefore The Drinker Man said that
he would no longer bum them and then he told the sun to go up, but not as much as
before, and he told them that he left it lower in order to bum them by means of it,
if ever they made him angry again, and for this reason it is so hot in that country in
summer.
He [the governor] added that he knew other stories; that he could not tell them
because the time was up, and he agreed to tell them to us another day; but as we
had laughed a little at his tales, which he related with a good deal of seriousness,
we could not get him afterward to tell us anything more, saying that he did not know
anymore.*
Legends from Other Sources
In the account of Casa Grande given by Johnston^ lie wrote (1847)
as follows:
The general asked a Pimo who made the house [Casa Grande] I had seen. '* It is
the 'Cara [sic] de Montezuma,' " said he; *' it was built by the son of the most beautiful
woman who once dwelt in yon mountain; she was fair, and all the handsome men
came to court her, but in vain; when they came, they paid tribute, and out of this
small store, she fed all people in times of famine, and it did not diminish ; at last, as
she lay asleep, a drop of rain fell upon her navel, and she became pregnant, and brought
forth a boy, who was the builder of all these houses."
Capt. F. E. Grossman' in 1871 made tlie following allusions to the
Pima legends regarding Casa Grande:
The Pimas claim to be the direct descendants of the chief Sd'-hft. The children of
Sy-h6 reinhabited the Gila River Valley, and soon the people became numerous.
1 It will be seen that there are some parts of this story almost identical with a story that follows, told
the writer by Thin Leather in 1907-8.
s Johnston, Journal, in Emory, Notes of a Military Reoonnolssance, Washington, 1848 (Ex. Doc. 41, 30th
Cong., 1st sess., 1848).
s SmUhMonian Report for 1871, p. 406.
FBWKJB8] TRADITIONS 45
One of the direct descendants of S^-hd, King SP-va-no, erected the Casas Giandes
on the Gila River. Here he governed a large empire, before — ^long before — the
Spaniards were known.
The following quotation is taken from Bandelier's report:*
Mr. J. D. Walker, an old resident in the vicinity of Casa Grande, who has been to
me x)er8onally an excellent friend and valuable informant, told me this tale.
The Gila Pimas claim to have been created on the banks of the river. After residing
there for some time a great flood came that destroyed the tribe, with the exception of
one man, called Gi-ho. He was of small stature, and became the ancestor of the present
Pimas. The tribe, beginning to grow in numbers, built the villages now in ruins and
also spread to the north bank of the river. But there appeared a mouBtrous eagle,
which, occasionally aiwuming the shape of an old woman, visited the pueblos and stole
women and children, carrying them to his abode in an inaccessible cliff. On one
occasion the eagle seized a girl with the intention of making of her his wife. Ci-ho
thereupon went to the cliff, but found it impossible to climb. The girl, who was still
alive, shouted down to him the way of making the ascent. When the eagle came back,
Ci-ho slew him with a sword, and thus liberated his people from the scourge.^
The following existing Pima legends relating to Morning Green,
chief of Casa Grande, were collected from Thin Leather (Kamaltkak),
an old Pima regarded as one of the best informed story-tellers of
the tribe.^ Some of his legends repeat statements identical with
those told to Father Font, 137 years ago, a fact which proves ap-
parently that they have been but little changed by intervening
generations. The statement which recounts how Morning Green
was miraculously conceived by a Hohokam maiden has been verified
by several legmdists. The following stories supplement published
legends of tliis chief and other ancients and shed li^t on the condition
of early society in the settlement over which Morning Green is said
to have ruled.
HOW A CHIEF OF ANOTHER " GREAT HOUSE ' ' ENTICED THE WOMEN
FROM CASA GRANDE
Morning Green, chief of Casa Grande, invited Chief Tcematsing and his women to
visit him. Tcematsing lived in a great house situated near Gila Crossing, which is so
far away from Casa Grande that he found it necessary to camp one night en route at
the settlement on the Gila River opposite Sacaton. When the visitors arrived at
Casa Grande a dance was celebrated in the open space north of Compound A, some-
where between it and the circular wall inclosing a reservoir or **we\\.** Here the
women who accompanied Tcematsing danced with those of Casa Grande, singing the
Bong:
Ta 9ai nawHwH
Sim shade sing with me
My body will become a humming-bird
When Tcematsing came and witnessed the women dancing he shook his rattle and
sang a magic song, which enticed all the women of Casa Grande to follow him to
1 Bandelier, Final Rep., pt. n, in Papers Areh. Intt. Amer., iv, p. 463, 1892.
> For another venion of this tale, see Bancroft, Native Races, vol. HI, p. 79.
* Many other legends were collected, but these have no bearing on Casa Grande, and some of them have
been published by previous observers, especially Doctor Russell, who obtained many of his stories from
the same authority. It is said that rooet of these legends are from the Maricopa; several show miaslonary
influence.
46 CASA GRANDE, ABIZONA [bth. anw. 28
another dance place, nearer the Gila. Morning Green, who also sang a magic song,
found it powerless > to prevent the departure of the women, and he went back to his
house for a more powerful ''medicine," after which he returned to the dance and
ordered his women back to their dwellings; but they were so much bewitched by the
songs of Tcematsing that they could not, or would not, obey him. Farther and
farther from their homes Tcematsmg enticed the women, dancing first in one place
and then in another until they came to his compound. Among the women who
abandoned their home was the wite of Morning Green, who refused to return even'
after he sent a special messenger to her.
The sequel of the legend is that Tcematsing mairied Nactci, a daughter of Morning
Green, making her father so angry that he sent a spider to bite his own gnmdson, off-
spring of the union. When the boy was sick unto death Tcematsing invited Morning
Green to visit his grandson before the boy died. Moming Green relented and sent his
daughter an herb (the name of which is lost) powerful enough to cure the spider's bite,
and thus the child's life was spared.'
Another legend of Chief Moming Green, also obtained from Thin
Leather, affords an instructive glimpse of prehistoric thought.
HOW TUBQUOISES WERE OBTAINED FBOM CHIEF MORNING GREEN
One day, long ago, the women and girls of Casa Grande were plasring an ancient
game called toibd,' formerly much in vogue at Casa Grande, but now no longer played
by Pima. During the progress of the game a blue-tailed lizard was noticed descending
into the earth at a spot where the stones were green .^ The fact was so strange that it
was reported to Moming Green, who immediately ordered excavation to be made.
Here they eventually discovered many turquoises, with which they made, among
other things, a mosaic covering for a chair that used to stand in one of the rooms of
Casa Grande. This chair was carried away many years ago and buried, no one knows
where.
Moming Green also distributed so many turquoises among his people that the fame
of these precious stones reached the ears of the Sun, in the East, who sent the bird
with bright pliunage (parrot?) to obtain them. When Parrot approached within a
short distance of Casa Grande he was met by one of the daughters of the chief, who
retumed to the town and announced to her father the arrival of a visitor from the Sun.
The father said, ''Take this small stick, which is charmed, and when Parrot puts
the stick into his mouth, you lead him to me." But Parrot was not charmed by the
stick and refused to take it into his mouth and the girl reported her failure. The
chief answered, "Perhaps the strange bird would eat pumpkin seed," and told his
daughter to offer these to him. She made the attempt without result and, returning,
1 Evidently Morning Green had met his equal in Toemataing, whose "medicine "was superior to that he
employed on the first trial of magic power.
s Morning Oreen (Sialim Tcutuk) is regarded by the Pima as an historic personage. Civan is here inter-
preted as a generic name for "chief," not limited to Moming Oreen alone; all chieft of the ancients are called
ei0an<. In commenting on the word Siba of Kino and Mange, and on Cibola, Doctor Russell puts this
query: Is the similarity of this term («ite) to Shl'wona or Shi Vina, given by Mr. F. H. Gushing as the
native name of the ZufU country, a mere coincidence? This question assumes a new signlflcanoe if we
remember that some of the ZuAi clans originally came firom villages ruled over by the doatU.
* The iriayecs in this game were generally 10 in number, facing each other about 100 yards apart. Eadi
participant had a pointed stick with whidi she caught a rope having a knot at each end.
« In a legend of the Ho|d, turquoises are said to be the excrement of a reptile.
The legend of the "throne" of Monteauma covered with turquoises may be of late introduction, but how
the resemblance to the Mexican account Is to be accounted for among the Pima does not appear; possibly
by the same m^ans as in the case of the name Montesuma. In this connection attention is directed to the
"seat" excavated in Clan-house 1 (flg. 19).
FiwKEs] TBADITI0N8 47
reported that the bird refuaed pumpkin seed. The father then said, 'Tut the seed
into a blanket and spread it before the bird; then perhaps you may capture him."
Still Parrot would not eat, and the father thereupon suggested watermelon seeds.
But Panrot was not tempted by these nor by seeds of cat's claw, nor was he charmed
by charcoal.^
The chief of Gasa Grande then told his daughter to tempt Parrot with com well
cooked and soaked in water, in a new food-bowl. Parrot was obdurate and would not
taste it, but, noticing a turquoise bead of blue-green color, he swallowed it; when the
two daughters of the chief saw this they brought to him a number of blue stones,
which the bird greedily devoured. Then the girls brought valuable turquoise beads,
which Parrot ate; then he flew away. The girls tried to capture him, but without
success. He made his way through the air to the home of the Sun in the East, where
he drank an emetic and vomited. the turquoises, which the Sun god distributed
am<Hig that people which reside near his house of rising, beyond the eastern moun-
tains. This is the reason, it is said, why these people have many stone ornaments
made of this material.
But when the chief of Casa Grande heard that Parrot had been sent to steal his tur-
quoises, he was greatly vexed and caused a violent rain to fall that extinguished all
fires in the East. His magic power over the Rain god was so great that he was able
even to extinguish the light of the Sun, making it very cold. Then the old priests
gathered in council and debated what they diould do. Man-Fox was first sent
by them into the East to get fire, but he failed to obtain it, and then Road-runner
was commissioned to visit Thunder, the only one that possessed fire, and steal his
lighted torch. But when Thunder saw him running off with the torch he shot an
arrow at the thief and sparks of fire were scattered around, setting afire every tree,
bush, and other inflammable object, from which it happens that there is fire in every-
thing.
HOW MORNING OREEN LOST HIS POWER OVER THE WIND OODS AND
THE RAIN OODS
Morning Green is reputed to have had special magic power over two supernatural
beings, known as Wind-man and Rain-man. It happened at one time that many people
were playing a game with canes in the main plaza of Morning Green's settlement [Gasa
Grande], on the south side of the compound; among these were Rain-man and Wind-
man. The latter laid a wager that if he lost, his opponent should look on the charms
of a certain maid. When Wind-man lost, in revenge he sent a great wind that blew
aside her blanket, at which indignity she cried and complained of Wind-man to
Morning Green, who was so angry that he made Rain-man blind, obliging him to be
led about by his servant, the wind; he also banished both from Gasa Grande. They
went to the San Bernardino Mountains in what is now Galifomia and lived at Eagle
Mountain, near the present town of Wadsworth, where as a consequence it rains
continually.
After the banishment of these two the rain ceased at Gasa Grande for four years, and
Morning Green sent Humming-bird to the mountains where Wind^man and Rain-man
resided. Humming-bird carried with him a white feather, which he held aloft to detect
the presence of the wind . Three times he thus tried to discover Wind-man by the move-
ment of this feather, but was not successful. When at last Humming-bird came to a
place where there was much green grass he again held up the feather to see whether it
showed any movement of the air. It responded by indicating a slight wind, and later
he came to the spot where Wind-man and Rain-man were, but found them asleep.
iCIiarooal, the product of fire, la regarded by the Hopl Vaya, or fire priests, as poasesBing most powerftil
magic in heaUng diaeases, eapedally thoee of the sUn In which there b a burning aenaatioo.
48 CASA GRANDE, ABIZONA [bth. axn. 28
Humming-bird dropped a little medicine on the breasts of Wind-man and Rain-
man, which caused them after a time to move and later to awake. When they had
risen from their sleep ^umming-bird informed them that Morning Green had sent him
to ask them to return and again take up their abode with him at Casa Grande. Rain-
man, who had no desire to return, answered, "Why did Morning Green send us away?"
and Wind-man said, *' Return to Morning Green and tell him to cut off his daughter's
hair and make from it a rope.^ Bring this rope to ine and I will tie it about my
loins that Rain-man, who is blind, may catch hold of it while I am leading him. But
advise all in Casa Grande to take the precaution to repair the roofs of their houses
so they will not leak, for when we arrive it will rain violently." Humming-bird
delivered the message to the chief of Casa Grande and later brought back the twisted
rope of human hair. Wind-man and Rain-man had barely started for Casa Grande
when it began to rain, and for four days the downpour was so great that every roof
leaked. Morning Green vainly used alLhis power to stop the rain, but the magic
availed but little.
THE BIBTH OF HOK
Long ago the Sun god sent a messenger on an errand to the settlement now called
Casa Grande. As this messenger proceeded on his way he occupied himself in kicking
a stone ball, and on approaching Casa Grande he gave the ball so violent a kick that
it landed near a maiden who sat on the housetop making pottery. Seeing the object,
the girl picked it up and hid it under her belt. When the man sought the stone it
was nowhere to be found; he asked the girl if she knew where it fell, but she would
not divulge what had become of it. Discouraged in his quest, the man was about to
return to the Sun god, but the girl urged him not to depart but to search more dili-
gently for the ball. She also sought for it, but it was no longer under her belt; it had
disappeared. Later she was with child and in due time gave birth to a girl baby,
which, instead of feet and hands, had claws like a bear or a mountain lion. As this
strange child grew older and played with other boys and girls she scratched them so
often with her claws that they were afraid of her, and ran away whenever she appeared.
The brothers of the girl were hunters of rabbits, but were unsuccessful. When their
sister grew older she followed them to the hunt and their luck changed, so that thence-
forth they killed plenty of game. As she matured, however, she outgrew all restraint
and became a wild woman. She was then called Hok, and developed into a cannibal
monster, who captured her victims wherever she went and carried them in a basket
on her back until she wished to devour them.^ Hok once met two youths, whom she
tried to capture, but they ran swiftly away and when she made another attempt they
blinded her by throwing sand in her eyes. This monster terrorized the whole country
to such an extent that the ancients sought her life, but in vain. The culture-hero,
Tcuhu, endeavored to kill Hok. He turned himself into a snake and furnished the
children with rattles; when Hok approacHed them they shook these rattles and
frightened her. Hok first retired to a distant cave in the Santa Catalina Mountains, but
later went south to Poso Verde. The people living there were also oppressed by Hok
and desired to kill her. Tcuhu ' sent word to his uncle that there was to be a dance at
Casa Grande and asked him to invite Hok to attend. This was a kind of ceremonial
dance in which men and women participate, forming a circle and alternating with
each other. Several invitations were sent to Hok, but she did not accept; at last she
promised to attend the dance and to be there at sunset. Tcuhu danced and smoked
with Hok, and the festivities lasted four days and nights. While she was absent the
> Ropes were made of taaman hair up to within a few years by the Pima, who used them on burden-
baskets ikikut) and for other purposes.
> The Hopi have a similar bogy, who is personated annually at Walpi in February, at which time she
threatens to kill all children. She carries a knife In her hands, and has a basket on her back for the heads
of the victims she declares she will decapitate.
s The name Tcuhu Is sometimes interchanged with Montezuma as if the two personages were Identical.
FBWKU] TRADITIONS 49
women gathered Vood and made a fire in the cave where Hok Uved. When she dis-
covered what had taken place she flew to the top of her cave and entered it through
a crack open to the sky. At the opening Tcuhu stood so as to prevent Hok's escape
and slew her as she emerged.
A CREATION LEGEND
In the beginning all was dark and there was neither earth nor sky. Earth Doctor
(Tcuwut Marka) was the only being then living.^
Earth Doctor took a particle of sweat from his body and made from iX a small disk,
which he held in his hiuid and started to go to the west. When he stopped, the sweat
showed signs of life, for it trembled; he proceeded and still the material moved. He
halted four times in his course and as he stopped the fourth time the disk, which was
the nucleus of the earth, became stable, and neither trembled nor wavered.^ He then
knew he was at the middle point of the universe. Earth Doctor then made a bush and
created small ants to feed on it. He took a louse from his breast and put it at the root
of the bush. This insect foimd a ring of soil that kept growing larger and laiger as
Earth Doctor danced near it, until it became the earth. In the same way the solid
sky was formed. Earth Doctor pounded ** medicine " in a bowl and shortly afterward
there appeared over the siuiace a transparent substance resembling ice. Earth Doc-
tor threw this substance toward the north, where it fell but shortly afterward rose
again and then sank below the horizon. He then cast another fragment to the west
and it fell below the horizon, never to rise again. He threw another fragment into
the south; this struck the earth or sky and bounded back, whereupon he picked it up
and again threw it to the south. This time it rose and passed over the sky. These
fragments became the sun and the moon, both formed in the same way. Earth Doctor
spurted a mouthful of medicine-water into the sky and created the stars, first the
larger and then the smaller, the last of all being nebulae like the Milky Way. Having
formed the celestial bodies, he made seeds of all food used by man, after which he
created men and women from a particle of sweat or grease from his body.
Buzzard Doctor lives in the Underworld, where there are many people similar to
those who inhabit the earth. The entrance [sipapu] to this underworld is in the east.
As soon as men and women had been created they began to quarrel; this an-
gered Earth Doctor and he put them to death. After he had killed all human beings,
Earth Doctor and Buzzard emerged together from the Underworld and the former
begged the latter to help him re-create men and women. The result was men who
were gray-haired at birth. Earth Doctor again destroyed man because he smoked
too much, but on the fourth trial there emerged from the earth four men who later
became great medicine-men — Land, Buzzard, Tcuhu, and Tohouse.^
The youth Tcuhu became a great warrior and married many women, whom he
deserted before children were bom.*
A TLOOD LEGEND
The Pima believed that the flood was caused by Earth Doctor, who stuck his staff ^
into the ground, making a hole out of which water issued, covering the earth. Tcuwut,
Tcuhu, and Tohouse crawled into ollas and floated away. When the earth was
1 Thb legend differs fjrom other purely aboriginal creation legends with which the author Is acquainted,
In aooounting for the origin of earth and sky.
> See Znfii legend of the search for the "middle," or stable, point on the earth (in IStk Ann. Rep, Bur,
mnoi., p. 373).
* Because the men were thus destroyed four times some people ^think there are four worlds.
* The son of Tcuwut went to get his child, but when he took it In his arms he became a snipe and the baby
became what the Pima call a water baby.
* Sereral Hopi and Hano legends recount that when the tiponl, or emblematic palladium, was placed on
the earth a spring was developed.
20903^—28 ETH— 12 4
50 CASA GRANDE, ABIZONA [btu.axn. 28
covered with water, Humming-bird , led by Buzzard, flew into the sky, crying out
that they would return after the water should have subsided. Buzzard soared aloft
to an opening in the sky, through which he passed, but his companion could not
follow him. Both were caught in the passage and there they himg. Humming-bird
cried because it was cold in the sky region, but Woodpecker made a nest of feathers
to keep them warm. The flood rose until the water reached them and there may still
be seen on the feathers of the woodpecker marks where the water touched him.
The olla in which Tcuhu was concealed floated far away into the southwest, but
that containing Earth Doctor went northwest. The third, in which was Tohouse,
went east. The tracks of the oUas of Earth Doctor and Tohouse Doctor crossed sev-
eral times and as they did so Earth Doctor addressed the other as Elder Brother.
There were seven persons saved from the flood, and these were called brothers. Their
names are Tcuwut, Tciihu, Tohouse, Buzzard, Woodpecker, Hunmiing-bird, and an
unknown. When the water had subsided these seven brothers held a council to deter-
mine the position of the middle of the earth. Woodpecker was sent to the east and
Humming-bird to the west, to find it. Three times they returned without success,
but on their foiuth meeting they reported that they had found the middle of the
earth.
Tcuhu plucked a hair from the right side of his head and, putting it in his mouth,
drew it back and forth, stretching it and miraculously forming a snake, which he laid
on the earth at his north side. He took a hair from the left side of his head and , stretch-
ing it out as before, created a second snake, which he laid at the west side. He then
laid one at the south and another at the east.^ These snakes prevent the water from
flooding the land and cause it to flow in channels or rivers. Tcuhu created ants,
which he put on the wet ground; these threw up hills that became dryland. After
the water had subsided Earth Doctor, Tcuhu, and Tohouse set themselves to re-create
men, having agreed not to inform one another what kind of beings each would make.
To prevent one another from seeing their work they faced in different directions — Earth
Doctor to the east, Tohouse to the south, and Tcuhu to the west. When their crea-
tions were finished it was found that Tcuhu had made men similar in form to those
now living, but that Tohouse 's men had webbed fingers like ducks, while those cre-
ated by Earth Doctor had but one leg each and subsisted not on food, but on smells,
which they inhaled. Tcuhu asked Tohouse why he made his men with webbed
fingers. "That they may live in water," responded Tohouse. Tcuhu was dissat-
isfied with the beings made by Tohouse, and he threw them into the water, where they
became ducks. The creations of Earth Doctor became fishes and snakes; he was
much pleased with his children, which descended into the Underworld where he
daily visits them.
When Earth Doctor stuck his staff into the ground to cause the flood and water cov-
ered the earth, most of the people perished, but some escaped and followed White
Feather, who fled to the top of Superstition MountainB. The water rose, covering all
the valley until it was as high as the line of white sandstone which is a conspicuous
landmark. White Feather, surrounded by his followers, tried all his magic in vain to
prevent the further rise of the flood. When he saw he was powerless to prevent this,
he gathered all his people and consulted them, saying, "I have exhausted all
magic powers but one, which I will now try." Taking in his left hand a medicine-
stone horn his pouch, he held it at arm's length, at the same time extending his
right hand toward the sky. After he had sung four songs he raised his hand and
seized the lightning and with it struck the stone which he held. This broke into
splinters with a peal of thunder and all his people were transformed into the pinna-
cles of stone which can now be seen projecting from the sunmiit of one of the peaks
of the Superstition Mountains.
1 It is thought that dreams come firom the east and that the west sends cold.
FBWKM] TRADITIONS 61
The followers of Tcuhu and TohouBe united and built a house. Four days after
this house was begun Tcuhu sent Tohouse to visit a people he had created, in order
to learn what language they spoke. When Tohouse found that they spoke Apache
and so reported, Tciihu assigned them to the land of cold wind and rain. Tcuhu
again sent Tohouse to discover whether there were other people on the earth; return-
ing after a time the latter reported to Tcuhu that he had heard of men speaking
Mohave, Yuma, and Maricopa, but not Pima. After four days Tcuhu again sent
Tohouse to search for any men allied to his people, and he reported finding those
who continually raid, Ston, sUm, *4t is hot.*' He retiumed and told Tcuhu he had
found lost brothers, because he had detected in their speech a Pima word. Tcuhu
said they must be his people; he said also, '* I will give them dark cool nights in which
they can sleep, and I will send them dreams and they shall be able to interpret these
dreams." All these peoples were gathered into the house Tcuhu had built [Gasa
Gnmde?]. But after a while there were bickerings and quarrels among men. The
Apache left for the mountains where they said they also would have dreams and
thus they became hereditary enemies of the Pima. At this time all the Pima inhab^
ited the Salt River Valley, not far from the site of the present Phoenix.
White Feather and his people lived in a settlement called Sturavrik Cf vanavdaki,
near Tempe, the site of which is now a large mound. According to some legends,
this chief was the first man who taught the Pima irrigation and he showed them also
how to plant com. Through his guidance his people became prosperous and all the
Pima congregated at his settlement to trade.
The people of a settlement near Mesa could not build a canal because the ground
in the vicinity was so hard, so they asked Tcuhu to aid them. He sang magic songs
for four days, and at the fourth song the ground softened and the people easily exca-
vated the ditch, but the water would not run in it. Tcuhu found he was powerless
to make it do so and advised them to invite Towa Quaatam Ochse,^ an old woman
who lived in the west by the great water, to aid them. She was sunmioned and
sent word to the Mesa people to assemble in their council-house and await her com-
ing. They gathered and awaited her coming but she did not appear. At night a
man passing that way saw her standing at the highest point of the canal blowing
"medicine" along the ditch. Later there came a great wind that dug out a wide
channel and water ran in the canal. The Gasa Grande people, it is said, learned the
art of irrigating from those living on the site of Tempe, who were taught by Tcuhu.
Feather-plaited Doctor was an evil-minded youth who lived at Wukkakotk, north
of Gasa Grande. Tonto^ visited Feather-plaited Doctor, but the latter would not
notice him, although he made the customary offering of four cigarettes. Three times
Tonto repeated his visit to Feather-plaited Doctor, and on the third visit the latter
accused him of being a gossip and on that account refused to have anything to do
with him. On the last visit he told Tonto that although he did not like him he did
not object to his visits, but he warned him, if he wished to see him, not to gamble at
night and not to have anything to do with women without his permission. At that
time there was a man who wished to gamble with Tonto but, forewarned, the latter
refused. When Tonto was asked the reason, he revealed his promise to Feather-
1 This personage corresponds to HatrinwuqtS, or Woman of Hard Sabstanoe (shell, stone, and turquoise)
of the Hopi.
> The writer's interpreter claimed that tonto is a pure Pima word, hence the fact that in Spanish it
slgnlfles " foolish " would seem to he fortuitous. It appears in the term ToUmUac, used by early Span^
iards to designate a "kingdom/' sometimes regarded as synonymous with Moki, also a Pima word. On
the theory that toUmUae is pure Pima, the writer derives it from to-ton, and toac or tetu;, a termination which
occurs in the name of a mountain (Kihutoec, "mountain of the kiku^ or carrying basket"). The term
Totonteac would mean "mountains of the Tontos."
When first mentioned Totonteac was reputed to be a kingdom of great power; later it was found to be
a hot spring surrounded by a few mud houses. In the opinion of the writer, the hot springs in the lower
part of the Tonto Basin, near the Roosevelt Dam, may represent the locality of the so-called fabulous
Totonteac.
52 CASA GBAKDEy ARIZONA [■TH.AirN.28
plaited Doctor and said he must get permiaBion. Ton to was allowed by Feather-
plaited Doctor to gamble with this man, but was warned not to play again if he were
beaten; but should he win twice he must desist by all means &om further playing.
The game at which Tonto gambled was that known as the *'cane game, '' and on this
occasion Feather-plaited Givan marked the canes. Tonto played and won twice
from his opponent; he would not play a third time, but carried all he had won to the
house of Feather-plaited Civan. Whenever he played with the marked canes, he
won, BO that one of his opponents consulted Tcuhu to learn the reason. Tculm
informed him that the sticks were endowed with magic derived from the sun, wfaiik
gave them supernatural power over all others.
Tcuhii then told a maid to search under trees and gather in the early morning the
feathers of eagles, crows, buzzards, and hawks, bind them together, and bring them
to him. After these feathers had been brought Tcuhu instructed her to strip every
feather to its midrib and cut each into short sections. Having toasted the feathers
with meal of popcorn, the girl placed them on a basket tray. She was then instructed
to fill two small bowls with "medicine" and to carry them to a spring near the place
where Tonto was going to play the next game. Before Tonto began this game he
declared he was thirsty and started for the spring, kicking before him the stone ball.
When he reached the spring he perceived the girl and fell in love with her. She prom-
ised to marry him if her parents were willing. The maid handed Tonto a drink of the
*^ medicine " instead of water; at the first draught he began to tremble; a second caused
him to shake violently, and at the third feathers began to form all over his body, and
shortly afterward he took the form of a bird resembling the eagle. When the maid
had witnessed this metamorphosis, she sought the man with whom Tonto had agreed
to gamble and told him Tonto had become a bird, at the same time pointing to an eagle
perched on a rock near the spring. The man tried to shoot Eagle, but he flew away
and alighted on the top of a peak of the Superstition Mountains, which shook violently
as Eagle landed thereon.^ In his flight Eagle carried off the maid, now called Baat,
with whom he lived . He killed many people dwelling near his home and heaped their
bodies in a great pile near the cave in which he made his home. He became so dan-
gerous, in fact, that the survivors asked Tcuhu 's aid; he promised to come in four
days but did not do so. A new messenger was sent with the same request and he
again promised to come in four days but again failed to fulfill his promise. Tcuhu
told the messenger to bring him ashes, and the man brought mesquite charcoal, which
he did not wish. Tcuhu procured charcoal from cactus fruit and, having ground the
seedH into fine meal, he fashioned it into the form of a big knife. He then procured a
flexible stick, such as grows in the Wliite Mountains, and other pointed sticks resem-
bling bone awls. Having made four of these sticks, he sharpened them and started
forth to overcome Eagle, leaving word that if he were killed a smoke would be seen
for four days, but that if he killed Eagle, a cloud would hang over the place of
the combat. Tcuhu traveled eastward a long distance and came to the mountain
wh^re Eagle lived, in between perpendicular precipices, surrounded by deep fissures.
Tcuhu metamorphosed himself into a fly and hid himself in this fissure, where he slept
that night. On the following day he changed himself back into a man, stuck the
sticks into the crevice of the cliff, and by their help climbed up to the crag in which
Eagle had his home.^
1 A mountain in the Superstition Range, resembling a monster bird (eagle), is now pointed out from the
Roosevelt Dam road.
* This story of Eagle seems to be a variant of that previously recorded in which the avian being killed was
the monster Hok. Here Tcuhu found only a captive woman, who said the monster had gone to jnocure
victims. Tcuhu having revealed his mission, they agreed on a signal, and he changed into a fly. When
Eagle returned, although suspicious, ho went to sleep and the woman whistled three times. At the last
whistle Tcuhu returned to human form and decapitated Eagle, throwing his head, limbs, and body to the
four world quarters. Then the woman sprinkled "medicine " on a pile of bones, the remains of former vic-
tims, and brought them to lite. Thereupon all descended from the mountain over which hovered dense
clouds, the signal that the monster was dead.
FGWKBS] HISTORY 53
HISTORY
No prehistoric structure in the Southwest has been more ire-
quently described and figured than Casa Grande. This venerable
ruin is one of the few in what is now the United States that bears
a Spanish name reaching back to the close of the seventeenth cen-
tury. Some of the more important contributors to its history are
mentioned in the following pages.*
It was once believed that this celebrated ruin was one of the so-
journing places of the Aztec on their southerly migration in ancient
times, and was generally supposed to be identical with the Qxichil-
ticalli (Aztec, "Red House") mentioned by Fray Marcos de Xiza
in 1539 and by Pedro de Castadeda and other clironiclers of the expe-
dition of Francisco Vasquez de Coronado in 1540-1542. There seems
no foundation for the association of the people of Casa Grande with
the Aztec and considerable doubt exists whether the ruin was ever
visited by Coronado or any of his companions.
Almost every writer on the Southwest who has dealt with the ruins
of Arizona has introduced short references to Casa Grande, and many
other writers have incidentally referred to it in discussing the antiqui-
ties of Mexico and Central America. Among the former are Browne,'
Ruxton,' and Hinton,* while among the latter may be mentioned Pres-
cott,* Brantz Mayer,® Brasseur de Bourbourg,^ Humboldt,^ Miihlen-
pfordt,' and^quier.*®
As there are several very complete accounts of Casa Grande, and
as these are more or less scattered through publications not accessible
to all students, it is thought best to quote at least the earliest of
these at considerable length. As will be seen, most of these descrip-
tions refer to the historic building, while only one or two shed light
on the great compounds, which formerly made up this extensive
settlement."
^ The writer Is indebted to Mr. F. W. Hodge, ethnologist in charge of the Bureau of American Eth-
nology, for some of the historical material used in this portion of the present work.
> Browne (J. Ross), Adventures in the Apache Country, pp. 114-124, New York, 18G0.
' Ruzton (George Frederic), Sur la migration des Anciens Mexicains; in Nouvelles Annaiea des VoyagHf
5me s^r., t. xxn, pp. 40, 46, 52, Paris, 1850.
< Hinton (Richard J.), The Great House of Montezuma; in Harper's Weekly, xxxm, New York. May 18,
1889.
» Prescott (Wm. H.), History of the Conquest of Mexico, ni, p. 383, Philadelphia [c. 1873].
* Mayer (Brantz), (1) Mexico, Aztec, Spanish, and Republican, n, p. 396, Hartford, 1853. (2) Observap
tions on Mexican History and Archeeology; in Smithwnian ConiTtbutiont to Knowledge, ix, p. 15, Wash-
ington, 1856.
' Brasseur de Bourbourg (M. I'Abb^), Histoire des nations civilis^es du Mexique et de I'Amdrique-
Centrale, t. 2, p. 197, Paris, 1868.
* Humboldt (Friedrich H. Alex, de), Essai politique sur le royaume de la Nouvelle-Espagne, 1. 1, p.
297, Paris, 1811.
* Mtthlenpfordt (Eduard), Versuch einer getreuen Schilderung der Republik Mejico, Bd. ii. p. 435,
Hannover, 1844.
i*Squier (E. G.), New Mexico and Calilomia; in American Review, Nov., 1848.
u See Winship, The Coronado Expedition, in 14th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol.
64 CASA GRANDE, ARIZONA [eth. ▲nn. 28
Recent students of the route of the Coronado expedition have
followed Bandelier^who has shown that the army may have traveled
down the San Pedro River for part of its course, thus leaving Casa
Grande several miles to the west.
Discovery and Early Accounts
The first known white man to visit Casa Grande was the intrepid
Jesuit Father Eusebio Francisco Kino, or Kuehne, the pioneer mis-
sionary among the Opata, Pima, Papago, and Sobaipuri Indians from
1687 until his death in 1711. In 1694 Lieut. Juan Mateo Mange,
nephew of Don Domingo Jironza Petriz de Cruzate, the newly
appointed governor of Sonora, was commissioned to escort the mis-
sionaries on their perilous journeys among the strange and sometimes
hostile tribes of the region. In June of that year, while making a
reconnoissance toward the northeast from Kino's mission of Dolores
on the western branch of the Rio Sonora, Mange heard from the
Indians of some «W(W grandes, massive and very high, on the mai^
of a river which flowed toward the west. The news was communicated
to Kino and shortly afterward was confirmed by some Indians who
visited Dolores from San Xavier del Bac, on the Rio Santa Cruz
below the Indian village of Tucson. In November (1694) Kino went
from his mission on a tour of discovery, finding Casa Grande to be as
reported, and saying mass within its waUs.^ The house was described
as large and ancient and certainly four stories high. In the immediate
vicinity were to be seen the ruins of other houses, and in the country
toward the north, east, and west were ruins of similar structures.
Kino believed that Casa Grande was the ruin (Chichilticalli) spoken of
in 1539 by Fray Marcos de Niza,' whose journey was followed in i\\e
next year by Coronado's famous expedition. Ortega, Kino's biogra-
pher, speaks of the ancient traditions of the Mexicans (Aztec), favor-
ably received by all the historians of New Spain, that this Gila locaUty,
as well as the Casas Grandes of Chihuahua, was one of the stopping
places on their migration southward to the Valley of Mexico. This
beUef was prevalent during the period, and Casa Grande on the Gila
is frequently marked on early maps as an Aztec sojourning place.
For this reason it was also commonly designated Casa de Montezuma.
Three years later, in the autumn of 1697, Kino, accompanied by
Mange, again started from his mission of Dolores and traveled across the
country to the Rio San Pedro, on which stream, at a point west of the
present Tombstone, the missionary was joined by Capt. Crist6bal M.
Bemal with 22 soldiers. Proceeding down the San Pedro, the party
reached the Gila on November 16, and on the 18th arrived at Casa
Grande.
t Mange in Doc. Hit, Mtx., 4th aer., i, 260, 259, Mexico, 1866.
s (Ortega,) Apoetolioos afanea de la Componia de Jesus, escrito por un Padre de la misma sagrada rriigion
de sa Provincia de Mexicx), p. 253, Barcelona, 1754.
FBWKES]
HISTOBY
55
mange's narrative
Fio. 1. Sketch of Casa Grande ruin
(Mange).
Mange's account * of the famous ruin (pis. 8, 9) is so interesting and
so important for comparison with the condition of Casa Grande as
it exists to-day that it is here given in full:
On the 18th we continued westward acroas an extensive plain, barren and without
pasture, and at a distance of 5 leagues we discovered on the other side of the river
other houses and buildings. Sergeant Juan Bautista de Escalante and two companions
Bwam across to reconnoiter and reported that the walls
were 2 yards thick, like a castle, and that there were
other ruins in the vicinity, all of ancient workman-
ship. We continued westward and after making 4
more leagues we arrived at noon at the Gasas Grandes,
in which Father Kino said mass, having till then kept
his fast. One of the houses is a great building, the
main room in the middle being four stories high and the
adjoining rooms on the four sides of it being three
stories, with walls 2 yards thick, of strong mortar and
clay, so smooth on the inside that they look like
planed boards and so well burnished that they shine
like Puebla earthenware; the comers of the windows,
which are square, being very straight and without any
hinges or crosspieces of wood, as if they had made
them with a mold or frame; and the same is true of
their doors, although these are narrow, whereby it might be known that this b the work
of Indians. The building is 36 paces long and 21 paces wide, of good architecture.
A crossbow shot &rther on 12 other houses are seen, half tumbled down, also with
thick walls and all with roofs burnt, except one room beneath one house, with round
beams, smooth and not thick, which appear to be of cedar or savin, and over them
reeds very similar to them and a layer of mortar and hard clay> making a ceiling or
story of very peculiar character. In the neighborhood many
other ruins may be noted and {terremotosf) [heaps of earth], which
inclose two leagues, with much broken pottery of vessels and
pots of fine clay, painted in various colors, resembling the
Guadalajara pots of this country of New Spain, whence it is
inferred that the settlement or city was very large, inhabited
by a civilized race, under a regular government. This is
^^^ ?.'^^P^.®' evidenced by a main ditch which branches off from the
Can Grande ruin . . x ^i/ t . j* <ii. •-.!_• i.
(Mange). nver into the plain, surrounding the city which remains m
the center of it, in a circumference of 3 leagues, being 10
yards wide and 4 feet deep, by which they diverted perhaps one-half of the
river, that it might serve them for defense, as well as to provide water for their
city subdivisions and to irrigate their crops in the vicinity. The guides said
that at a distance of a day's journey there are other edifices [^ of the same kind of work-
manship, toward the north, on the other bank of the river in another ravine which
joins the one they call Verde, and that they were built by people who came from the
region of the north, their chief being called El Siba, which according to their defini-
1 Mange, op. cit., pp. 283-284. The original manuscript joomal in the Archives of Mexico contains a
sketch and a ground plan, which are introduced with some changes in an extract from Mange's diary pub-
lished in Sohoolcnft's Indian Tribes (m, 801-803, 1853), from a translation by Buckingham Smith, but
these do not appear in the printed copy of Mange's Diary in Doc. HitL Met. The sketch and plan
(figs. 1, 2) reproduced in the present work are firom photographs of the original manuaoript, procured
through the courtesy of Dr. Nicolas Le6n of the City of Mexico. The accompanying translation is from
the pnbliaihed Spanish account.
s Evidently those now in ruins near Phoenix, Tempo, and Mesa, in the Salt River Valley.— J. W. F.
J.
•
•
56 CASA GRANDE, ARIZONA [bth.ann. 28
tion in their language means ''the bitter or cruel man/' and that through the bloody
wars which the Apache waged against them and the 20 tribes allied with them, killing
many on both sides, they laid waste the settlements, and part of them, discouraged,
went off and returned northward, whehce they had started years before, and the
majority toward the east and south; from which statements we inferred, that it was
very likely that these were the ancestors of the Mexican nation, judging by their
structures and rolics, such as those that are mentioned under the thirty-fourth
degree [of latitude] and those in the vicinity of the Fort of Janos under the twenty-
ninth degree, which are also called Casas Grandes, and many others which, we are
told, are to be found as far as the thirty -seventh and fortieth degrees north lati-
tude. On the bank of the river, it a distance of 1 league from the Casas Grandes, we
found a rancheria in which we counted 130 souls, and, preaching to them on their
eietnal salvation, the Father baptized 9 of their little ones, although at first they
were frightened at the horses and soldiers, not having seen any till then.
Early in March, 1699, during a seventh tour of Pimeria, as the
Pima country was called, Father Kino made his final visit to Casa
Grande,^ and in 1701 he prepared a map of the countiy, remarkably
accurate for its day, in which Casa Grande is charted for the first
time.
The next visits to the celebrated ruin of which there is record
were made in 1736-37 by Father Ignacio Keller, of the mission of
Suamca, not far from the present Nogales, reference to which is
made in the Rudo Eusayo. Again, in 1744, the Jesuit father,
Jacobo Sedelmair, of the mission of Tubutama, on the Rio Altar,
went to the Gila near Casa Grande in an endeavor to cross the
northern wilderness from this point to the Hopi (Moqui) country.
He describes what was evidently the present main structure as a
large edifice with the central part of four stories and the surrounding
wings of three stories.^
*'budo ensayo" narrative
Twenty years later, that is, about 1762, another definite descrip-
tion of the ruin is given by the author of the anonymous Rudo
Ensayo,' attributed to Father J.uan Mentuig, or Nentoig, of the
mission of Guazavas, on the Rio Bavispe, a branch of the Yaqui.
The author seems not to have visited the ruins himself but to have
gathered his information from other missionaries, notably Father
> (Ortega,) ApostoUcos Afanes, etc., op. cit., p. 276.
- Doeumentoa para la Hhtoria de Mixko, 3e s&ie, iv, 847, 1853-57. Sedelmair's account, as Bancroft ( Native
Races, iv, 623, 1882) has pointed out, is a literal copy of Mange's Diary in tlie Archives of Mexico. See
also Oroeco y Berra, Qeo^afla, p. 106, 1864.
> Rudo Ensayo tentativa de una pieviencional descfipoion Geographica de la Provincla de Sonora, etc.,
por un Amigo del Bien Comun, San Augustin de la Florida, Afio de 1763. This work, the original of
which is in the Department of State of Mexico and a duplicate copy in the Royal Academy of History at
Madrid, was published by Buckingham Smith. Under the title Deecripcion geograflca natural y curiosa
de la Provincia de Sonora (1764) this essay appears in the DocumeiUo9 para la HiHoria de MHieo^ 3e s^ie,
IV 503, and from it the part pertaining to Casa Grande was translated by Buckingham Smith and pub-
lished in Schoolcraft's Indian Tribes, m, 304-306, 1853. An English translation of the Rudo Ensayo, by
Eusebio Ouitdras, appean in the ReeordM of the American CatkoUc Historical Society, v, 110-264, Phila.,
1894.
PBWKBS] HISTORY 57
Keller, to whom reference has been made. This hxteresting docu-
ment says:^
PuTBuing the same course for about 20 leagues from the junction [of the San Pedro],
the Gila leaves on its left, at the distance of 1 league, the Casa Grande, called the
House of Moctezuma because of a tradition current among the Indians and Spaniards,'
of this place having been one of the ab6des in which the Mexicans rested in their long
transmigrations. This great house is four stories high, still standing, with a roof made
of beams of cedar or tlascal and with most solid walls of a material that looks like the
best cement. It is divided into many halls and rooms and might well lodge a traveling
court. Three leagues distant and on the right bank of the river there is another
similar house but now much demolished, which from the ruins can be inferred to have
been of vaster size than the former. For some leagues around, in the neighborhood
of these houses, wherever the earth is dug up, broken pieces of very fine and variously
colored earthenware are found. Judging from a reservoir of vast extent and still
open, which is found 2 leagues up the river, holding sufficient water to supply a city
and to irrigate for many leagues the fruitful land of that beautiful plain, the residence
of the Mexicans there must not have been a brief one. About half a league west from
this house a lagoon is seen that flows into the river, and although the surface is not very
large it hss been impossible to measure its depth by means of cords tied together, etc.
The Pima tell of another house, more strangely planned and built, which is to be
found much farther up the river. It is in the style of a labyrinth, the plan of which,
u it is designed by the Indians on the sand, is something like the cut on the n^argin;
but it is more probable that it served as a house of recreation than as a residence of a
magnate ^ I have heard of other buildings, even more extensive and more correct in
art and symmetry, through Father Ignatius Xavier Keller, although I can not recol-
lect in what place of his apostolic visits. He spoke of one that measured in frontage,
on a straight line, half a league in length and apparently nearly as much in depth, the
whole divided into square blocks, each block three and four stories high, though
greatly dilapidated in many parts; but in one of the angles there was still standing a
massive structure of greater proportions, like a castle or palace, five or six stories high.
Of the re8er\'oir, as in the case of the one spoken of above, the reverend father said
that it not only lay in front of the house but that, before ha outlet reached there, it
divided into many canals through which the water might enter all the streets,
probably for cleansing purposes, when such was desired, a^ is done in Turin and other
cities of Europe and was done even in Mexico in olden times. This lafit Casa Grande
is perhaps the same as that of which we spoke before and which lies on the other side of
the river, for those who have been there agree that there are ruins not merely of a
single edifice but of a laige town.
GARCES' NARRATIVE
The next recorded visit to Casa Grande is that of Lieut. Col. Juan
Bautista de Anza, accompanied by a force of 239 persons, including
Fathers Francisco Garcfe, Pedro Font, and Tom&s Eixarch, who were
among the first Franciscans to serve as missionaries in this region
after the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767. During an excursion from
Tubac, in October, 1775, the party approached the Gila on the 30th,
and on the following day, Anza having decided to rest, an opportunity
was given of 'Agoing to see the Casa Grande that they call [Casa] de
Moctezuma.' ' Garcfe continues : "
1 TrBoslaUon by Eiuebio Ouit6ras, op. cit., pp. 127>128.
'It is Btaown elsewhere (in Amer. AtUhr,, n. s., ix, pp. 610^612, 1907) that this is a misoonoeptlon.
The Indians did not intend to suggest a dwelling but the ground plan of a game.— J. W. F.
> In Cones, On the Trail of a Spanish Pioneer: The Diary and Itinerary of Francisco Oarofe. . . in
1775>76, 1, 66, 1000.
58 CASA GRANDE, ARIZONA [bth.ann.28
We [Garc^ and Font] traveled about 3 leagues southeast and arrived at tlie casa,
whose position is found in latitude 33^ 03^ 3(K^. For the present condition of this casa
I refer to the description thereof that Padre Font has given; and in the end will speak
of that which I have been enabled to conjecture from what I saw and learned at
Moqui.
Later, on July 4, 1776, while at the Hopi (Moqui) village of Oraibi,
in northeastern Arizona, Garc^s, who had been inhospitably received
by the natives, learned of the hostility that existed between the Hopi
and the Pima.^
This hostility had been told me by the old Indians of my mission , by theGilefios,
and Cocomaricopas; from which information I have imagined (he discunido) that
the Moqui nation anciently extended to the Rio Gila itself. I take my stand (/ten-
doTne, ground myself) in this matter on the ruins that are found from this river as far
as the land of the Apaches; and that I have seen between the Sierras de la Florida
and San Juan Nepomuzeno. Asking a few years ago some Subaipuris Indians who
were living in my mission of San Xavier, if they knew who had built those houses
whose ruins and fragments of pottery {losa, for loza) are still visible — as, on the sup-
position that neither Pimas nor Apaches knew how to make (such) houses or pottery,
no doubt it was done by some other nation — ^they replied to me that the Moquis had
built them, for they alone knew how to do such things; and added that the Apaches
who are about the missions are neither numerous nor valiant; that toward the north
was where there were many powerful people; '^ there w^it we," they said, '*to fight
in former times (anHguajnente); and even though we attained unto their lands we did
not surmount the mesas whereon they lived." It is confirmatory of this that I have
observed among the Yabipais some circumstances bearing upon this information; for
they brought me to drink a large earthenware cup very lik« the potsherds that are
found in the house called (Casa) de Moctezuma and the Rio Gila. Asking them
whence they had procured it, they answered me that in Moqui there is much of that.
At> I entered not into any house of Moqui, I could not assure myself by sight; but from
the street I saw on the roofs some large, well-painted oUas. Also have the Pimas
Gilefios told me repeatedly that the Apaches of the north came anciently to fight with
them for the casa that is said to be of Mocteziuna; and being sure that the Indians
whom we know by the name of Apaches have no house nor any fixed abode, I per-
suaded myself that they could be the Moquis who came to fight; and that, harassed
by the Pimae, who always have been numerous and valiant, they abandoned long ago
these habitations on the Rio Gila, as also have they done this with that ruined pueblo
which I found before my arrival at Moqui and of which I have made mention above;
and that they retired to the place where now they live, in a situation so advantageous,
so defensible, and with such precautions for self-defense in case of invasion.
font's NARRATIVE
It is unfortunate that Garcfe did not describe Casa Grande inde-
pendently of his companion. Father Font, but most fortunate that
the description and plan of the latter exist, as they afford valuable
data for comparison with Mange's account of 1697 and with the
present condition of the ruin. Font's narrative reads as follows:'
t Ibid., n, 3M-387.
* Dlarlo A Monterey por et Rio Colorado del Padre Fr. Pedro Font, 1775. The orlgiiial manuscript is in
the John Carter Brown Library, Provldenoe, R. I. A recent copy of it, Irom which the aooompansring
translation was made and the plan reprodaoed, is in the archiTes of the Bureau of American Ethnology.
See also Notioe sur la grande maison dite de Ifoctecusoma, in Temauz-Compans, Voyages, ix, app. yu,
88^-386, 1^38.
FBWKBS]
HI8T0BY
59
J^ORTB
3l8t day [of October, 1775], Tuesday. I said mass, which some heathen Gila Indians
heard with very quiet behavior. The sefior comandante decided to give his men a
rest to-day from the long journey of yesterday, and in this way we had an oppor-
tunity of going to examine the Casa Grande which they call the house of Moc-
tezuma, situated at 1 league from the River Gila and distant from the place of
th& lagoon [Camani, where they had camped] some 3 leagues to the east-southeast;
to which we went after mass and returned after midday, accompanied by some
Indians and by the governor ot Vturitdc, who on the way told us a history and
tradition which the Pima of Gila River have preserved from their ancestors concerning
said Casa Grande, which all reduces itself to fictions mingled confusedly with some
catholic truths, which I will relate hereafter. I took observations at this place of
the Casa Grande, marked on the map which I afterward drew, with the letter A,
and I found it to be without correction in 33° 11^ and with correction in 33° 3^^";
and thus I say: In the Casa Grande of the River Gila, 3l6t day of October of 1775,
meridional altitude of the lower limb of the sun, 42° 25^. We examined with all
care this edifice and its relics, whose ichnographic plan [fig. 3] is that which here I
put, and for its better understanding I give the description and explanation which
follow. The Casa Grande, or Palace of Moctezuma, may have been founded some
500 years ago, according to the stories and scanty notices that there are of it and
that the Indians give; because, as it
Ft^u tVA,>^4^,a J. u Ca«4 gr4nJ,J*i ^* GcU ^ appears, the Mexicans founded it
when in their transmigration the
devil took them through various
lands until they arrived at the
promised land of Mexico, and in
their sojourns, which were long,
they formed settlements and built
edifices. The site on which this
casa is foimd is level in all direc-
tions and distant from Gila River
about 1 league, and the ruins of the
houses which formed the settlement
extend more than a league to the
east and to the other points of the
compass; and all this ground is
strewn with pieces of jars, pots,
plates, etc., some plain and others
painted various colors — white, blue,
red, etc. — an indication that it
was a large settlement and of a
distinct people from the Pima of
the Gila, since these know not how
to make such pottery. We made an
exact inspection of the edifice and
of its situation and we measured it
with a Unce for the nonce, which
measurement I reduced after-
ward to geometrical feet, it being
approximately the following: The casa is an oblong square and laid out perfectly to
the four cardinal points, east, west, north, and south, and roundabout are some ruins
which indicate some inclosure or wall which surrounded the house, and other buildings.
fa
ui
SUR
Fio. 3. Oround plan of Compoancl A (Font).
60 CASA GRANDE, ABIZONA [bth. ann. 28
particularly at the corners, where it Beems there was some structure like an interior
castle, or watch tower, for in the comer which lies at the southwest there is a piece of
ground floor with its divisions and an upper story. The exterior inclosure [fig. 3] is
from north to south 420 feet long and from east to west 260. The interior of the casa
is composed of five halld, the three equal ones in the middle and one at each extremity
laiger. The three (middle) halls have a length from north to south of 26 feet and a
width from east to west of 10. The two halls of the extremities (one at each end) are
from north to south 12 feet and from east to west 38. The halls are some 11 feet high
and all are equal in this respect. The doors of communication are 5 feet high and 2
feet wide and are all about equal except the four first of the four entrances, which it
appears were twice as wide. The thickness of the interior walls is 4 feet and they are
well laid in mortar, and of the exterior ones 6 feet. The casa is on the outside from
north to south 70 feet long and from east to west 50 feet wide. The walls have a pmooth
finish on the outside. In front of the door of the east, separated from the casa, there
is another building with dimensions from north to south 26 feet and from east to w^est 18,
exclusive of the thickness of the walls. The woodwork was of pine, apparently, and
the nearest mountain range that has pines is distant some twenty and five les^^ues, and
also has some mesquite. The whole edifice is of earth, and according to the signs it is
a mud wall made with boxes of various sizes. From the river and quite a good dis-
tance there runs a largo canal, by which the settlement was supplied with water. It
is now very much choked. Finclly, it is known that the edifice had three stories,
and if that which can be found out from the Indians is true, and according to the indi-
cations that are visible, it had four, the basement of the casa deepening in the manner
of a subterranean apartment. To give light to the apartments there in nothing but the
doors and some circular openings in the midst of the walls which face to the east and
west, and the Indians said that through these openings (which are pretty large) the
Prince, whom they call El Hombre Amargo [The Bitter Man] looked out on the sun
when it rose and set. to salute it. There are found no traces of staircases, from which
we judged that they were of wood and were destroyed in the conflagration which the
edifice suffered from the Apache. The story which the governor of Vturituc related
to us in his Pima language, which was interpreted to us by a servant of the sefior coman-
dante, the only interpreter of that language, is as follows: He said that in verv' olden
time there came to that land a man who because of hii< evil disposition and harsh sway
was called The Bitter Man; that this man was old and had a young daughter; and
that in his company there came another man who was young, who was not his relative
nor anything, and that he gave him his daughter in marriage, who was very pretty,
the young man being handsome also; and that the said old man had with him as
servants the Wind and the Storm-cloud. That the old man began to build that Casa
Grande and ordered his son-in-law to go and fetch beams for the roof of the house.
That the young man went far off; and as he had no ax, nor anything else with which
to cut the trees, he tarried many days and at the end he came back without bringing
any beams. That the old man was very angry and told him that he was good for
nothing; that he should see how he himself would bring beams. That the old man
went very far off to a mountain range where there are many pines and that, calling on
God to help him, he cut many pines and brought many beams for the roof of the house.
That when this Bitter Man came, there were in that land neither trees nor plani«;he
brought seeds of all and reaped very large harvests with his two servants, the Wind and
the Storm-cloud, who served him. That by reason of his evil disposition he grew angry
with the two servants and turned them away, and they went very far off ; and as he could
no longer harvest amy crops through lack of the servants, he ate what he had gathered
and came near dying of hunger. That he sent his son-in-law to call the two servants
and bring them back but he could not find them, seek as he might. That thereupon
the old man went to seek them and, having found them, brought them once more into
his service; with their aid he once more had large crops and thus he continued for
rawMs] HISTORY 61
many years in that land; and after a long time they went away and nothing more was
heard of them. He [the governor] also said: That after the old man there came to that
land a man called The Drinker and he grew angry with the people of that place and
sent much water, so that the whole country was covered with water, and he went to a
very high mountain range, which is seen from there and which is called The Mountains
of the Foam {Sierra de la Etpufna)^ and he took with him a little dog and a coyote.
(This mountain range is called '* of the foam '' because at the end of it, which is cut off
and steep like the comer of a bastion, there is seen high up near the top a white brow as
of rock, which also continues along the range for a good distance, and the Indians say
that this is the mark of the foam of the water, which rose to that height.) That The
Drinker went up, and left the dog below that he might notify him when the water came
80 far, and when the water reached the brow of the Foam the dog notified The Drinker,
because at that time the animals talked, and the latter carried him up. That after
some days The Drinker Man sent the Rose-sucker (Chuparoioa) and the Coyote to
bring him mud; they brought some to him and of the mud he made men of different
kinds, and some turned out good and others bad. That these men scattered over
the land, upstream and downstream; after some time he sent some men of his to see
if the other men upstream talked; these went and returned, saying that although
they talked they had not understood what they said, and that The Drinker Man was
very angry, because those men talked without his having given them leave. That
next he sent other men downstream to see those who had gone that way and they
returned, saying that they had received them well, that they spoke another tongue,
but that they had understood them. Then The Drinker Man told them that those
men downstream were the good men and that these were such as far as the Opa, with
whom they are friendly; and that the others ui>Btream were the bad men and that
these were the Apache, who are their enemies. He [the governor] said also that at
one time The Drinker Man was angry at the people and that he killed many and trans-
formed them into saguaros [giant cacti], and that on this account there are so many
saguaros in that country. (The saguaro is a tree having a green trunk, watery, rather
high, and uniformly round, and straight from foot to top, with rows of large spines from
above downward ; it usually has two or three branches of the same character, which look
like arms.) Furthermore he said: That at another time The Drinker wasyery angry
with the men and that he caused the sun to come down to bum them, and that he was
making an end of them; that the men begged him much not to bum them and that
thereupon The Drinker said that he would no longer bum them; and then he told the
sun to go up but not as much as before, and he told them that he left it lower in order
to bum them by means of it if ever thejr made him angry again, and for this reason
it is so hot in that country in summer. He [the governor] added that he knew other
stories, that he could not tell them because the time was up and he agreed to tell them
to us another day; but as we had laughed a little at his tales, which he related with
a good deal of seriousness, we could not get him afterward to tell us anything more,
saying that he did not know any more. This whole account or story I have reproduced
in the dialect here given, because it is more adapted to the style in which the Indians
express themselves.
Grossman's narrative
Regarding the story of the origin of Casa Grande, it may be well to
incorporate here the Pima myth regarding the ruin and the descrip-
tion of the structure as given by Capt. F. E. Grossman in 1871 :*
The Pimas, however, claim to be the direct descendants of the chief Sd^-hd above
mentioned. The children of Sd^-h5 inhabited the Gila River valley, and soon the
1 In Smithtonkm Report for 1871, pp. 409-409, Washini^n, 1873.
62 CASA GRANDE, ABIZONA [vth.ann. 28
people became numerous. One of the direct descendants of S(y^-h5, King Si^-va-no,
erected the Gasas Grandes on the Gila River. Here he governed a large empire,
before — long before — the Spaniards were known. King Si^-va-no was very rich and
powerful and had many wives, who were known for their personal beauty and their
great skill in making pottery ware and ki^-hos (baskets which the women carry upon
their heads and backs). The subjects of King Si^-va-no lived in a large city near the
Casas Grandes, and cultivated the soil for many miles around. They dug immense
canals, which carried the water of the Gila River to their fields, and also produced
abundant crops. Their women were virtuotis and industrious; they spun the native
cotton into garments, made beautiful baskets of the bark of trees, and were particularly
skilled in the manufacture of earthenware. (Remains of the old canals can be seen to
this day, and pieces of neatly painted pottery ware are scattered for miles upon the
site of the old city. There are several ruins of ancient buildings here, the best pre-
served one of which is said to have been the residence of King Si^'-va-no. This house
has been at least four stories high, for even now three stories remain in good preserva-
tion, and a portion of the fourth can be seen. The house was built square; each story
contains five rooms, one in the center, and a room on each of the outer sides of the inner
room. This house has been built solidly of clay and cement; not of adobes, but by
successive thick layers of mortar, and it^as plastered so well that most of the plastering
remains to this day, although it must have been exposed to the weather for many years.
The roof and the different ceilings have long since fallen, and only short pieces of
timber remain in the walls to indicate the place where the rafters were inserted . These
rafters are of pine wood, and since there is no kind of pine growing now within less than
50 miles of the Casas Grandes, this house must either have been built at a time when
pine timber could be procured near the building site, or else the builders must have
had facilities to transport heavy logs for long distances. It is certain that the house
was built before the Pimas knew the use of iron, for many stone hatchets have been
found in the ruins, and the ends of the lintels over doors and windows show by their
hacked appearance that only blunt tools were used. It also appears that the builders
were without trowels, for the marks of the fingers of the workmen or women are plainly
visible both in the plastering and in the walls where the former has fallen off. The
rooms were about 6 feet in height, the doors are very narrow and only 4 feet high;
round holes, about 8 inches in diameter, answered for windows. Only one entrance
from the outside was left by the builders, and some of the outer rooms even had no
communication with the room in the center. There are no stairs, and it is believed
that the Pimas entered the house from above by means of ladders, as the Zimi Indians
still do. The walls are perfectly perpendicular and all angles square.)
Early American Reports
The first American visitors to the Gila-Salt Basin appear to have
been trappers, who found beaver fairly abundant, especially on the
river and its tributaries. In 1825 the Patties,^ father and son, were
in the neighborhood of Casa Grande, and Paul Weaver, a trapper, is
said to have inscribed his name on its walls in 1833. One of the most
renowned of all the pathfinders and explorers of the West, Kit Car-
son, led a party of Americans from New Mexico to California in
1829-30. It may be safe to say that every traveler who rested a
longer or shorter time at or near the neighboring Pima village of
Blackwater visited Casa Grande. These earlier visitors left no record
1 Psttie, Peraonal Narrative. See also J. Roas Browne, Adventures in the Apache Country, p. 118, New
York, 1860. A figure of Casa Grande as it appeared In 1860, somewhat modified in NadalUac, L' Am^rique
Pr^Istorique, is given in Cozzens, The Marvelloas Country, London, 1874.
FBWKBS] HISTORY 63
of their visits, however, or made at the most only meager references
to the ruin. The most important accounts of Casa Grande in the
iniddle of the nineteenth century are found in tne official reports of
the expedition to California led by General Kearny, in 1846, at the
time of the Mexican war.
In 1846 Brantz Mayer erroneously ascribed the discovery of Casa
Grande to Fathers Garcfe and Font in 1773. He also mistook Font's
measurements of the wall of the surrounding compound for that of
the main edifice, for he writes: '
Like most of the Indian works, it was built of unbumed bricks, and measured
about 450 feet in length, by 250 in breadth. Within this edifice they found traces
of five apartments. A wall, broken at intervals by lofty towers, surrounded the
building, and appeared to have been designed for defence.
The error of confounding the dimensions of the main structure
with those of the surrounding wall, which Font gave with fair
accuracy, has misled several later writers on the ruin.
Emory's narrative
In 1846 the ruins were visited by Lieut. Col. William H. Emory,
with the advance guard of the **Army of the West.'* Under date of
November 10 of thistt year Emory makes the following entry in his
journal and includes an illustration which shows that the main
building had not suffered greatly from the elements during the 70
years immediately following the time of Font and Garc6s:'
November 10. — . . . along the whole day's march were remains of zequias
[acequias], pottery, and other evidences of a once densely populated coimtry. About
the time of the noon halt, a large pile, which seemed the work of human hands, was
seen to the left. It was the remains of a three-story mud house, 60 feet square, pierced
for doors and windows. The walls were 4 feet thick, and formed by layers of mud, 2
feet thick. Stanley made an elaborate sketch of every part; for it was, no doubt, built
by the same race tJiat had once so thickly peopled this territory, and left behind the
ruins. [Fig. 4.]
We made a long and careful search for some specimens of household fumiture,or imple-
ment of art, but nothing was found except the comgrinder, always met with among the
ruins and on the plains. The marine shell, cut into various ornaments, was also found
here, which showed that these people either came from the seacoast or trafficked there.
No traces of hewn timber were discovered; on the contrary, the sleepers of the ground
floor were round and imhewn. They were biunt out of their seats in the wall to the
depth of 6 inches. The whole interior of the house had been burnt out, and the walls
much defaced. What was left bore marks of having been glazed, and on the wall in
the north rpom of the second story were traced the following hieroglyphics [appar-
ently not shown.]
From a Maricopa Indian Colonel Emory learned a version of the
Pima tradition of the origin of Casa Grande:
I asked him, among other things, the origin of the ruins of which we had seen so
many; he said, all he knew, was a tradition amongst them, that in bygone days, a woman
> Mexico, As it Was and As It Is. p, 238, Philadelphia, 1847.
s Notes of a Military Reoonnoissance, from Foi t Leavenwortli, in Missouri, to San Diego, in CaUfomia,
etc; Ex. Doc. No. 41, 30th Cong., 1st sess., Washington, 1848.
--my of the West"
■ •1 ■!• rnembere of the
-i - . jsseU Bartlett, was
-.■■miM with a sketch
- - -irunt wrote of Caaa
■ . .:-■•■ "iiildings, all included
■^1^ .-mauling. A considemble
■ ^ . jilj laUen inwards, as ippeani
■. ^oo« wliich fiUa the firet stofv
■ '-*i"y bB node out by the enda
1 - »i iQes which they occupied ; but I
- •- ■'^ i""nler to account for the cnimbling
- . .oi .r tower riring from the foundation
. -..>. Aud may have been seiTral feet, prob^
. .« OS o.mptete. The walls at the base are
< i^-* .{imenfliona could not bo ascertained
::-iu is perpendicular, while the eiterior
■ -'l: These walla, as weU as the diviaion
...^ blocks of mud, prepared for the pur-
x^« jbout 2 feet in height and 4 feet long.
■nd, the case was moved along and again
>.« iiimpleted. This is a rapid mode of
.■ have applied it to any purpose but the
FIWMB8] HISTORY 67
erection of fences or dividon walls. The material of this building is the mud of the
valley, mixed with gravel. The mud is very adhesive, and when dried in the sun,
is very durable. The outer surface of the wall appears to have been plastered roughly;
but the inside, as well as the surface of all the inner walls, is hard finished. This is
done with a composition of adobe, and is still as smooth as when first made, and has
quite a poUsh. On one of the walls are rude figures, drawn with red lines, but no
inscriptions. Fiom the charred ends of the beams which remain in the walls, it is
evident that the building was destroyed by fire. Some of the lintels which remain
over the doors are formed of several sticks of wood, stripped of their bark, but showing
no signs of a sharp instrument. The beams which supported the floors were from 4 to
5 inches in diameter, placed about the same distance apart and inserted deeply in
the walls.
Most of the apartments are connected by doors, besides which there are circular
openings in the upper part of the chambers to admit light and air. The groimd plan
of the building shows that all the apartments were long and narrow without windows.
The inner rooms, I think, were used as store-rooms for com; in fact, it is a question
whether the whole may not have been built for a similar purpose. There are four
entrances, one in the center of each side. The door on the western side is but 2 feet
wide, and 7 or 8 high ; the others 3 feet wide and 5 in height, tapering towards the top —
a peculiarity belonging to the ancient edifices of Central America and Yucatan. With
the exception of these doors, there are no exterior openings, except on the western
side, where they are of a circular form. Over the doorway corresponding to the third
story, on the western front, is an opening, where there was a window, which I think
was square. In a line with this are two circular openings.
The southern front has ^fallen in in several places, and is much injured by large
fissures, yearly becoming larger, so that the whole of it must fall ere long. The other
three fronts are quite perfect. The walls at the base, and particularly at the comers,
have crumbled away to the extent of 12 or 15 inches, and are only held together by
their great thickness. The moisture here causes disintegration to take place more
rapidly than in any other part of the building; and in a few years, when the walls
have become more undermined, the whole stmcture must fall, and become a mere
rounded heap, like many other shapeless mounds which are seen on the plain. A
couple of days* labor spent in restoring the walljs at the base with mud and gravel,
would render this interesting monument as durable as brick, and enable it to last for
centuries. How long it has been in this ruined state is not known; we only know
that when visited by the missionaries a century ago it was in the same condition as
at present.
The exterior dimensions of this building are 50 feet from north to south, and 40
from east to west. On the ground floor are five compartments. Those on the north
and south sides extend the whole width of the building, and measure 32 by K) feet.
Between these are three smaller apartments, the central one being within the tower.
All are open to the sky. There is no appearance of a stairway on any of the walls ^
whence it has been inferred that the means of ascent may have been outside.
On the south-west of the principal building is a second one in a state of min, with
hardly enough of the walls remaining to trace its original form. . . . The central
portion, judging from the height of the present walls, was two stories high; the outer
wall, which can only be estimated from the d6bris, could not have been more than a
single story.
Northeast of the main building is a third one, smaller than either of the others, but
in such an utter state of decay that its original form can not be distermined . It is small,
and may have been no more than a watch tower. In every direction as far as the
eye can reach, are seen heaps of mined edifices, with no portions of their waUs standing.
To the north-west, about 200 yards distant, is a circular embankment from 80 to 100
yards in circumference, which is open in the center, and is probably the remains of
68 CASA QRANDE, ABIZONA [bth. ann. 28
an incloflnire for cattle. For miles around these in all directions, the plain is strewn
with broken pottery and metates or com-grindeis. The pottery is red, white, lead-
color, and black. The figures are usually geometrical and formed with tafite, and in
character are similar to the ornaments found on the pottery from the ruins on the
Salinas and much farther north. Much of this pottery is painted on the inside, a
peculiarity which does not belong to the modem pottery. In its texture too, it is
far superior. I collected a quantity of these fragments, from which I selected thtt
laiger pieces. "^
HUGHES's NARRATIVE
Casa Grande was thus described by Lieut. John T. Hughes^ in his^
account of Doniphan's expedition in 1847:
After a march of 6 miles on the 10th of November, passing over plains which had
once sustained a dense population, they came to an extensive ruin, one building of
which, called the "Hall of Montezuma/' is still in a tolerable state of preservation.
This building was 50 feet long, 40 wide, and had been foiu* stories high, but the floors
and the roof had been burned out. The joists were made of round beams 4 feet in diam-
eter [nc]. It had four entrances — ^north, east, south, and west. The walls were built
of sun-dried brick, cemented with natural lime, which abounds in the adjacent coun-
try, and were 4 feet thick, having a curved inclination inwards toward the top, being
smoothed outside and plastered inside. About 150 yards from this building to the
northward is a terrace 100 yards long and 70 wide, elevated about 5 feet. Upon this
is a pyramid, 8 feet high and 25 yards square at the top. From the top of this, which
has no doubt been used as a watch-tower, the vast plains to the west and north-east, for
more than 15 miles, lie in plain view. These lands had once been in cultivation, and
the remains of a laige ascequia, or irrigating canal, could be distinctly traced along the
range of dilapidated houses.
About the same day they came to the Pimo villages on the south side of the Gila.
Captain Johnston observes: ''Their answer to Carson when he went up and asked for
provisions was, 'Bread is to eat, not to sell — ^take what you want.' The general asked
a Pimo who made the house I had seen . ' 1 1 is the Casa de Montezuma, * said he, 4t was
built by the son of a most beautiful woman, who once dwelt in yon mountain. She
was fair, and all the handsome men (fame to court her; but in vain. — ^When they came
they paid tribute and out of this small store she fed all people in times of famine, and
it did not diminish. — At last as she lay asleep a drop of rain fell upon her navel, and
jshp became pregnant and brought forth a son , who was the builder of all these houses. ' "
Later Amebioax Reports
HINTON's DESCRIPTION
The observations of a party of which Mr. Richard J. Hinton was a
member, who visited Casa Grande on December 13, 1877, are thus
recorded by him,' the description being accompanied with a full-page
lithograph illustration of Casa Grande :
The Casa Grande itself is the remains of a large building, the waUs of which are
composed of a species of gray concrete or groat. They still stand in a crumbling and
almost disjointed condition, for a height of from 30 to 45 feet, the inside wall being
the highest. The exterior walls at their thickest part are 4 feet 6 inches thick. The
interior walls at different points are well preserved, and show a uniform thickness of
1 This account Is taken largely ftrom Capt. A. R. Johnston's narrative, given on pp. 64^.
I Richard J. Hinton, Hand-book to Arizona.
FBWKES] HISTORY 69
nearly 4 feet. At the north-east comer there is a great rent, and the walls are
entirely separated; the opening here is about 5 feet and occupies the whole of that
angle. In the center of each side there are crumbled, outof-shape openings, which
on the north and west sides indicate old doors or entrances, but on the other sides
appear to have resulted from the crumbling away of the walls. The interior shows a
length of 52 feet north and south, and a width of 36 feet 6 inches east and west, while
the exterior walls show in the same way a length of 61 by 45 feet 6 inches. Of course
the exterior walls are much worn, fiurowed and crumbled. In all probability they
were originally not less thiui 6 feet thick. The interior walls still show above the
debris traces of three stories, rows of small round holes indicating where the rafter poles
had rested. In one room on the west side we were able to count them, and found 28
holes each side of the apartment, showing an average of 6 inches apart, with holes of
4} inches diameter. The interior room or compartment is the best-preserved part
of the structure. It is entered only on the east side and on the lower story as now
visible, by a small window or aperture originally about 2 feet 4 inches wide, and about
4 feet 6 inches high, rather narrower at the top than at the base. This is the case with
the other openings. There are six in all — two each on the interior walls to the north
and south, one on the east wall, and one forming the entrance to middle rooms, with
none at all on the west side. As to the exterior entrances, they appear to have been
on the north and south fronts; those on the east and west being apertures broken by
time and decay. There are several apertures in the interior walls, the purpose of
which can not be ascertained. One is about 10 inches each way, though it is some-
what irregular in form; the other two would be about 7 inches each way. These
apertures do not face each other, and consequently were not used to rest beams or
rafters upon. The interior walls have been coated with some sort of cement or varnish
which has a reddish-orange hue, and which at the present time can be peeled off by
a penknife. There are a number of names scrawled on the inside walls, but none of
special note. The accumulated debris almost forms a mound on the exterior, while
inside the floor is very uneven. The interior room gives out a hollow sound . Outside
the rains and winds are rapidly undermining the base of the walls; unless something
be soon done to roof the structure and prop the walls, the Gila Casa Grande will be
altogether a thing of the past.
BANDBLIER's ACCOUNT
Bandelier's account of Casa Grande is one of the most instructive
of later descriptions. This explorer was the first, since Father Font,
to give a ground plan of what is styled in the present report Com-
pound A (Bandelier, p. 464) in which is represented the relation of
the surrounding wall to the main structure. He gives likewise a
plan of the mounds and platform of Compound B, before excavations,
showing the two pyramids.
Bandelier's description is as follows:^
The walls of the Casa Grande are unusually thick, measuring 1.22 m. (4 feet), and
even the partitions 0.92 m. (3 feet). At the Casa Blanca their thickness is only 0.50 m-
(22 inches).
As already said, and in other ruins between Casa Grande and Florence, 0.92 and
0.60 m. (3 and^2 feet) were measured by me. . . .
The doorways are higher and wider than in northern ruins, so are the light and air
holes. The roof and ceilings, as far as traceable, belong to the usual pueblo pattern,
i Final Report of Investigations among the Indians of the Soathwestern United States, Part n; in
Papert of the Ardtxologkal Ifuiitute of America^ American Series, iv, Cambridge, 1882.
70 CASA OBANDE, ABIZOXA [bth. auk. 28
that 18, they oonaUt of round beams supporting smaller poles, on which rested a layer
of earth. All the woodwork is destroyed except the ends of the beams, but I was
informed that a few posts of cedar wood were still visible some years ago. Cedar only
grows at some distance from Casa Grande, but this was no obstacle to the patient and
obstinate Indian. I could not find any trace of stairways or ladders. It was remarked
in the last century, that the Apaches were the destroyers of the woodwork in the
building and something similar was told me; but to what extent this is true, I am
unable to determine.
Of the other shapeless mounds surrounding the Great House, or composing the
northern cluster of the ruins, I am not in a position to say anything except that they
indicate two-story edifices, long and comparatively narrow. Their size without
exception falls short of the dimensions of northern communal pueblos, and, not-
withstanding the extensive area occupied by the ruins, the population can not have
been large. I doubt whether it exceeded a thousand souls. Almost every inch of
the ground is covered with bits of pottery, painted as well as plain, and I noticed
some corrugated pieces. They all resemble the specimens excavated by Mr. Gushing
from the vicinity of Tempe, and what I saw of those specimens convinces me that
they belong to the class common to the ruins of Eastern and Central Arizona in general.
There was among the potsherds which I picked up myself a sprinkling of pottery
that closely resembled the modem ware of the Pimas and Papagos; but as I had
already noticed the same kind on the Rio Verde, and had been forced to the conclu-
sion that they were ancient, I am loath to consider them as modem at Casa Grande.
Of other artificial objects, I saw broken metates, and heard of the usual stone imple-
ments. The culture, as indicated by such remains, offers nothing at all particular.
The profusion of pottery scattered far beyond the area covered by the buildings
has caused the impression that the settlement was much laiger than I have repre-
sented it to be; I have, however, no reason to modify my opinion. I have already
stated that clusters of ruins are numerous about the Gila, and at no great distance
apart. Intercourse between these settlements, if they were contemporaneously
inhabited — of which there is as yet no proof — ^must have been frequent, and the winds
and other agencies have contributed toward scattering potsherds over much laiger
expanses than those which they originally occupied . The acequias which run parallel
to the Gila in this vicinity, and of which there are distinct traces, are usually lined
with pieces of pottery which leads the untrained observer to draw erroneous impres-
sions.
On the southwestern comer of the northern group of the Casa Grande cluster stands
the elliptical tank which is indicated on plate i, figure 59 Piere pi. 5, '' well '*]. Its
greatest depth is now 2} meters (8} feet), and the width of the embankment surround-
ing it varies between 8 and 10 feet. A large mezquite tree has grown in the center
of this artificial depression. As the tank stands on the southwestern extremity of
the northern, and not 100 meters (300 feet) [sic] from the southern group, it was prob-
ably common to both.
Bandelier's references to the use of the ''great houses" of the Gila
are instructive. He writes (p. 460) :
I have no doubt they may have been used incidentally for worship; still it was
probably not their exclusive object. It should be remembered that we have in the
first half of the seventeenth century descriptions of analogous buildings then actually
used among some of the natives of Central Sonora. Those natives were the Southern
Pimas, or '^N^bomes, " kindred to the Northern Pimas, who occupy the banks of the
Gila near Casa Grande, Casa Blanca, and at intermediate points. Father Ribas, the his-
toriographer of Sonora [1645], says that the villages of the N^bomes consisted of solid
houses made of laige adobes, and that each village had besides a laiger edifice, stronger,
and provided with loopholes which served, in case of attack, as a place of refuge or
citadel. The purpose of this building was not merely surmised by Father Ribas,
) HISTORY 71
who had means of acquiring personal knowledge, having been one of the early mis-
sionaries in Sonora. The Spaniards had an opportunity of experiencing its use to
their own detriment, and the edifice was so strong that its inmates had to be driven
from it by fire. Sudi a place of retreat, in case of attack, the Casa Grande and analo-
gous constructions in Arizona seem to have been. The strength of the walls, the
openings in them, their conunanding position and height, favor the suggestion. That
they may also have been inhabited is not impossible; Mr. Gushing 's investigations
seem to prove it.
After mentioning certain Pima traditions, Bandelier continues
as follows:
The gist of these traditions is that the Pimas claim to be the lineal descendants
of the Indians who built and inhabited the large houses and mounds on the Gila
and Lower Salado Rivers, as weU as on the delta between the two streams; that
they recognize the Sonoran Pimas as their kindred, who separated from them many
centuries ago; that they attribute the destruction and abandonment of the Casa
Grande and other clusters now in ruins to various causes; and, lastly, that they claim
the villages were not all contemporaneously inhabited. Further than that, I -do not
at present venture to draw conclusions from the traditions above reported ; but enough
is contained in them to justify the wish that those traditions may be collected and
recorded at the earliest possible day, and in the most complete manner, in order that
they may be critically sifted and made iiseful.
Regarding the kinship of the inhabitants of Casa Grande, Bandelier
writes:*
Here the statements of the Pimas, which Mr. Walker has gathered,^ are of special
value; and to him I owe the following details: The Pimas claim to have been created
where they now reside, and after passing through a disastrous flood, — out of which
only one man, Cl-hd, was saved — ^they grew and multiplied on the south bank of the
Gila until one of their chiefs, Ci-v&-nd, built the Casa Grande. They call it to-day
**Ci-vft-n6-qi" (house of Ci-v&-n6), also "V&t-qi" (ruin). A son of Ci-vft-no settled
on Lower Salt River, and built the villages near Phoenix and Tempe. At the same
time a tribe with which they were at war occupied the Rio Verde; to that tribe they
ascribe the settlements whose ruins I have visited, and which they call "0-6t-gdm-
v&tqi'' (gravelly ruins). The Casa Blanca and all the ruins south of the Gila were
the abodes of the fore&thers of the Pimas, designated by them as '^Vl-pl-s^t" (great-
grandparents), or ^'Ho-ho-qdm" (the extinct ones). (Ci-vft-nd had 20 wives, etc.
['' each of whom wore on her head, like a headdress, the peculiar half-hood, half-basket
contrivance called "Ky-jo. " — Papers Archxol. Imt. Amer., iv, 463.]) At one time the
Casa Grande was beset by enemies who came from the east in several bodies, and who
compelled its abandonment; but the settlements at Zacaton, Casa Blanca, etc., still
remained, and there is even a tale of an intertribal war between the Pimas of Zacaton
and those of Casa Blanca after the ruin of Casa Grande. Finally, the pueblos fell
one after the other, until the Pimas, driven from their homes, and moreover, decimated
by a fearful plague, became reduced to a small tribe. A portion of them moved
south into Sonora, where they still reside; but the main body remained on the site
of their fozmer prosperity. I asked particularly why they did not again build houses
with solid walls like those of their ancestors. The reply was that they were too weak
in numbers to attempt it, and had accustomed themselves to their present mode
of living. But the construction of their winter houses — a regular pueblo roof bent
to the groimd over a central scaffold — ^their organization and arts — all bear testimony
to the truth of their sad tale — that of a powerful sedentary tribe reduced to distress
and decadence in architecture long before the advent of the Spaniards.
> In F^Afi4Mul Report cfthe Arehmologieal InttUuie of America, ISSa-M, pp. SO, 81, Cambridge, 1884.
72 CASA GRANDE, ABIZONA [iith. aich. 28
In his Final Report Bahdelier gives a figure or ground plan of the
walled inclosure in which Casa Grande is situated, the only modem
representation of the outside wall of Compound A with which the
present writer is famiUar. There is also an illustration of the two
mounds of Compound B.
gushing' S RESEARCHES
Cosmos Mindeleff thus speaks of F. H. Cushing's researches relating
to ruins similar to Casa Grande: ^
In 1888 Mr. F. H. Cuahing presented to the Congr^ International des AmM-
canietes ' some ''Preliminary notes" on his work as director of tiie Hemenway south-
western archeological expedition. Mr. Gushing did not describe the Casa Grande,
but merely alluded to it as a siurviving example of the temple, or principal structure,
which occurred in conjunction with nearly all the settlements studied. As Mr.
Gushing 's work was devoted, however, to the investigation of remains analogous to,
if not identical with, the Casa Grande, his report forms a valuable contribution to
the literature of this subject, and although not everyone can accept the broad infer-
ences and generalizations drawn by Mr. Gushing— of which he was able, unfortunately,
to present only a mere statement — the report should be consulted by every student
of southwestern archeology.
PEWKES'S DESCRIPTION
In 1892 the following description of Casa Grande by the present
writer was published:"
A short distance south of the Gila River, on the stage route from Florence to Casa
Grande station on the Southern Pacific Railroad, about 10 miles southwest of the for-
mer town, there is a ruin which from its unique character has attracted attention from
the time the country was first visited. This venerable ruin, which is undoubtedly
one of the best of its type in the United States, is of great interest as shedding light on
the architecture of several of the ruined pueblos which are found in such numbers in
the valleys of the Gila and Salt Rivers. The importance of its preservation from the
hands of vandals and from decay led Mrs. Hemenway and others, of Boston, to petition
Congress for an appropriation of money for this purpose. This petition was favorably
acted upon, and an appropriation was made to carry out the suggestions of the
petitionere.* ...
Ab one -approaches the ruin along the stage road from the side toward Florence,'
he is impressed with the solidity and massive character of the walls, and the great
simplicity of the structure architecturally considered . Externally, as seen from a dis-
tance, there is much to remind one of the ruins of an old mission, but this resemblance
is lost on a closer examination. The fact that the walls of the middle (central) cham-
> In 18th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., p. 297.
* Berlin meeting, 1888; Compte-Rendu, Berlin, 1800, p. 150 et seq.
s In Journal of American Ethnology and Archeology, n, Boston and New York, 1882.
* The repain and other work carried on by means of this appropriation have been described at length by
Mr. Cosmos Mindeleff (in ISth Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol.).
Later a oonragated iron roof was erected over Casa Grande to protect it fSrom the elements. This feature
detracts somewhat from the picturesqueness of the ruin, but is necessary for the preservation of the stand-
ing walls. The bases of the walls, undermined and about to fall in several places, have been strengthened
^th cement and with iron rods strung from wall to wall. This roof was repainted In 1907 out of the
appropriation for the repair of the building.
* The writer visited the ruin fh>m this side, but one coming fkvm the Eastern States would probably find
it more oanveoient to make the station of Casa Grande on the Southern Padflo the point of departure.
a
F»WKM] HISTOHY 73
b«r rise somewhat above those of. the peripheral ie evident from a distance, long before
one approaches the ruin. This architectural feature impurts a certain pyramidal out-
line to the pile, rendering it somewhat dilScult to make out the relationship of the
diSerent parts. The departure of the outer face of the external walla from a vertical
line, which deviation is probably duo in part at least, possibly wholly, to atmospheric
erosion and natural destruction , the falling in of the material of which the upper courses
are made, is a marked feature of the vertical linej of the external walls on all sides.
[Fig. 7.] The debris within the chambers on the present fioor ■ is evidently in part
Fio. T. Caaa Orande lUln, from tbe aouttL
the result of the falling in of roofs and floom of upper st^es, but no large fragments
indicating the character or position of such in place could be found.
The orientation of the ruin correBponds lo the cardinal points. From my want of
instruments of precision, I was not able to determine its true position or to etal« accu-
rately tbe exact orientation of the ground plan; but by means of a pocket compass, it
■ Sertnd pemna have told me that It wss but ■ lev yon Bgo when wooden beanui and liuteli vera ta
be Ken (n tUa In the building. Then InfornunU have bIbd t«ld me that wlthhi a short time (he wall*
weremach bellsTprnerredthanatpreaeat. As tar as I have examined the TuiD.nota fragment of wood
stni renwlni, altbougb the holes from which the vlfat (beams] have been taken can still be readily
74 CASA ORANDEy ABIZONA [BTH.AMir. 28
was seen that the variatiQii of the bounding walls from north-south, east-west lines was
not very great. It seems evident that it was the intention of the buildem to align the
walls with the cardinal points. «
It may be convenient to consider the chambers of the ruin as if seen by a bird's-eye
view, without reference to the different stories which were once found in the building,
and gave its elevation. * Practically, at present, indications only of these stories
remain.
The plan [see pi. 6] given at the close of this article shows the general arrangement of
the rooms, and may be of use in understanding the description of the separate chambers
which follows. Examining this plan, it will be seen that the bounding walls of the
ruin inclose five chambers which fall in two groups: Twin chambers, one at either end,
and triplets in the interval between them. The rooms from their position may very
conveniently be designated, from the side of the ruin in which they are: The north,
south, east, west, and central chambers. The north and south are alike, and extend
wholly across their respective sides of the ruin, so that their east and west walls are por-
tions of the eastern and western external walls of the building. With the east and
west chambers, however, it is somewhat different. Whereas three of the walls of the
north and south chambers are external walls of the building wholly or in part, there is
but a single wall of either the east or west rooms which is external. None of the walls
of the remaining member of this triplet, the central chamber, excepting possibly those
belonging to upper stories , are external . All the chambers of both kinds have a rectan-
gular form, and their angles are as a general thing carefully constructed right angles.
The vertical and horizontal linoG are seldom perfectly straight, although much truer
than is ordinarUy the case in more northern ruins. [Fig. 8.]
Let us take up for consideration the different chambers which have been men-
tioned, in order to call to mind any special features in their individual architecture.
North Room (A)
This room occupies the whole northern end of the ruin, and has all the bounding
walls of the lower stories entire, with the exception of the northeast comer and a small
section of the adjacent northern wall. As one approaches the ruin from the side
toward Florence, it is through this broken-down entrance on the northeast comer
that one enters Gasa Grande. Although, as will be seen presently, there are several
other entrances to the ruin, this passageway is in fact the only means of entrance into
the chamber.
The greatest length of the room is from the eastern to the western wall. There are
good evidences in this room of at least two stories above the present level of the ground
which now forms the floor of the chamber.' As the floorjs are destroyed these former
stories now form one room with high bounding walls. On the northern side in the
second story of this chamber, there is an artificial break in the wall which indicates
that there had once been a passageway. The walls of this opening are not perpendic-
ular, but slightly inclined, so that their upper ends slightly approach. The eastern
wall of this passageway is now cracked, and will probably fall in a short time. The
position of ^e lintel is well marked, but the lintel itself, which was probably of
wood, has been removed from its former place, and cavities alone remain, plainly
showing, however, its former' size at the two upper comers of the opening. A groove
on the inner side of the northern wall, which marks the lines of the flooring of an upper
chamber, is well shown, although broken and gapped in many places. Near the
1 It would not be possible to demonstrate how many stories Casa Grande formerly had without excava-
tions. Even if the lower floor should be laid bare, there would always remain the difficulty in the deters
mination of how many upper stories have been destroyed by the weathering of the walls. I think that it
is not difficult to find evidences of four stories at oertain points. The observations which I could make on
the present condition of the ruin do not justify my acceptance of the theory that there were more. There
is good evidence that there were three stories.
rewRMi HISTORY 75
wefltem end of the northern wall, not far from thft corner, (here is an opening j'lut
ftbovs the line of the gecond floor. The line of insertion of a poaible third floor can
be eacdly traced above the northern pasMgeway. . . .
The westam wall of the room is pierced by a single circular and a rectangular
window, iituated in the same story as the northern passageway above mentioned,
about on a level with the top of the door or opening on the nortbem side. [Fig. 9.]
Tliit single opening lies midway between the northwestern and southwestern comers
of tberoom.
Fio. S. lalertor ol room, abowing doorwa; ind Koei of floor.
llie »authem wall of the north room (A) shows certain architectural details in con-
struction which are characteristic. Two openings lead from the chamber A into
adjoining rooms. One of these opens into the eastern chamber D; the other into the
western, B. There is no passageway from room A into the middle chamber, C, but
through the wall into chamber B is a broad opening through that portion of the wall
which forms the second story. This is undoubtedly artificial, as the sides of it are
smooth and resemble similar jambs in doorways and windows of inhabited pueblos.
Their surface wall is smooth, and they are nearly vertical. Below this opening the
76 CABA ORANDE, ARIZONA |kth. akh.ZS
chaiober wall is more M leas brokeo aod enl&rged, ita edges ue rouglti uid in them are
rounded cavities. It is next to impomible now to say whether the opening ie the
result of an enlargement of a previously eiisting doorway, or simply the result of a
breaking away of the wall. The upper portion of the doorway on th« second story
is broken and destroyed, A passageway from A into the east room, D, ritualed in the
second story, ia very conspicuous, lis sides slope slightly, one side being more out
of perpendicular than the other. The width of the opening is thus greater at the base.
Between the openings from the north room into chambera B and D, the floor groove
Fla.B. lDleriorofDarthrooiTi,1oaklDgireaI.
of the second story can be easily traced, and well preserved impressions of the ends
of the small sticks which were probably placed above (he beams can be readily seen.
In several instances it was poeeible to pick out of the adobe a few small ftagmenta of
woody remnants of the ends of the small stickn which formerly filled these holee, but
as a rule these ftagmentK are very small. The impressions in the adobe, however,
where rods formerly existed areas well shown as if the sticks or reeds had been extractad
but a few weeks ago.
While room A is by no means the best preserved of the five chambers which comiMse
Casa Grande, its walla are still in a fair condition for study. There are but few van*
PBWKE8] HISTORY 77
dalistic markings upon it, and aedde from the fact that the northeast comer is broken
down, the walls are in tolerably good condition. Possibly the thing most to be regret-
ted in the recent mutilations of this part of the ruin is an attempt by some one to dis-
cover by excavation how far the foundations extend below the surface of the ground
by iindermining the northwest comer of the ruin on the outside. This excavation
reveals the amount of weathering of the wall at the surface of the ground, but it has
been left in such a condition that it weakens the whole comer of the building, for it
affords an all too good opportunity for additional undermining by the atmosphere,
rains, and like agents of erosion.
Room B, West Room
This chaniber, which belongs to the middle triplet of rooms, being the most western
member of the three, like its two companions has a rectangular shape, its longest
dimension being from north to south. It has an external entrance on the west side,
and there are indications of former artificial passageways into chambers A and E.
There is an opening into the central chamber 0, but no passable way through. The
opening through the wall into room A, as seen from that room, has already been men-
tioned. On this side it is very much broken in the first story, but on the second, the
upright walls of the former passageway are smooth and litUe broken, except in the
upper part, near where the lintel formerly was. The wall of the chamber on the
north side, above the former passageway, is more or less broken and looks as if it would
tumble in at no distant date.
The eastern wall of chamber B is higher than the western, mftlring the additional
story, which forms the western wall of a central chamber. While there is no passage-
way into the central chamber C large enough to enter from this side, there are two
openings, one above the other, in the wall. The lower of these is rectangular in shape,
with the larger dimension horizontal; the upper is elongated, rectangular, with the
side vertical. The size of rooms B, C, and D is about the same, 24 feet long by a
little over 9 broad.
The single opening from chamber B into the south room £ appears to be the enlarge-
ment of two passageways, one on the first, the other on the second story. The former
is almost wholly clogged up by fallen debris strewn over the floor of the chamber.
A portion of the wall above the latter has fallen into the opening so neatly that it would
seem to have been placed there. The upper part of the west chamber on the south
side is very much broken, and traces of the uppfer story which probably once existed
are dif&cult to discover.
Room D, East Room
The chamber on the east of the ruin, like its fellow B on the west, is elongated in
a north-south direction, and plainly shows at least two stories above the present
level. One can enter this room from the side, and from it one can readily pass into
the central chamber C. It seems in keeping with what is known of ceremonial inclo-
sures used by Indians at certain times, that.if the central room was a sacred chamber
or used for religious ceremonials, it very properly had an entrance from the eastern
room and not from the others. [Fig. 10.]
The exterior entrance to room D is enlarged by the breaking of the walls, and
affords evidence that it was one of the principal entrances into the building. It
opens into the chamber about midway in its length and shows well-defined lintel
marks. On the second story the walls are more or less broken on the eastern side,
both externally and internally. A generous passageway from the second story of room
D into room A occupies about a fourth part of the width of the north wall. The wall
is intact with this exception, and the position of the flooring of the chamber above
the surface of the ground can be readOy seen. The ''floor groove *' of the second story
is pronounced, that on the east wall being a little lower than that on the west. The
78 CASA GMASDE, ABIZOKA [ktb_a9s. 38
woatb wan of the fiat tUKj •< rhm D ■ imarl; aa opening wUdi wootd mob to indi-
CM« tbe pimtiam <d ike jMHiBenj into the ■mtli room ham ita vatical jmilN itill
well pfiMcrred, b«t iu lap ham Ulm and m tctt nticfa btokca.
Room E, Soctr Room
The aoath rfaaabcr a< tke nnn, like the nortb. extend* acroH the vlnle end of
the ruin. Ita pcnteat kngth m thna cart and weat. Ita nerthern waD kmiB the
aoaOtent adc ot the eaat, vcM. and central chambcfa B, D. and C. jnM aa the HMithcm
Tlo. 10. Caa Onude ruin, iMUng DorthmM.
wall of the northern ctmmber A eeparolee thie room from the same membera of the
middle eeriee. Ae with its northeni fellow, there are openings into the lateral
chain ben B and D, the weetem and eaatcm rooms, but no Higns of the existence of an
entrance at any time into the central chamber C. The Boutheastem ai^le of room E,
which is at the some time the southeastern comer of the ruin, is broken down so that
a gap is formed, by which alone one can enter the room. Possibly this opening is
not wholly the product of natural destruction. Two great gaps break the continuity
of the southern wall, but the southwest comer of the chamber is entire from the ground
to a considerable height.
1 HISTORY 79
The fiuppoeed tormer pasaagewaya into chambers B and D have abeady been de-
Bcribed in my consideration of these rooms. When seen from the south room they do
not materially differ from what has already been said of them. The western wall of
room £ is pierced by a small, square, windowlike opening high up in the second
story. Upon this side of the room one can without difficulty make out two stories and
the renmants of the third above the present level of the ground. The line of holes in
which the floor logs formerly fitted Ckn be traced with ease, and a row of smaller
cavities can be readily seen between the passageway into room B and a middle ver-
tical line of the north wall. Vandalistic scribblings of varied nature deface this
room, and ambitious visitors with no claim for complimentary notice have cut their
names upon the smoothly plastered walls. There are also spiral markings resembling
forms of pictographs common on the sides of the mesas inhabited by the Tusayan
Indians.
Room C, Central Room
The central chamber of Casa Grande, like the other rooms, the eastern and the
western, is elongated in a north-south direction. It differs from the others in that it
shows the walls of an additional story on all four sides, and has but one entrance.
This entrance is from its eastern side. The walls are very smooth and apparently
carefully polished. There are well preserved evidences of the flooring, and the
smaller sticks which formerly lay upon the same are beautifully indicated by rows
of small holes in the northern wall. The eastern opening by which one enters has
already been described, as well as the windowlike openings leading into the western
chamber.
The walls of the third story on the western side are pierced by three circular
openings about 6 inches in diameter, which preserve their ancient outline. The rim
of these openings is smoothly polished, which would indicate that they were never
used for floor joists; indeed, their position seems to point in the same direction. They
were possibly windows or lookouts. On the north and south wall there are similar
openings, one on each wall. The round hole in the south wall is situated about on
the middle vertical line of the wall, while that on the north is a little to the east of the
middle. On the east wall there are three of these small round holes, placed one to
the north of the doorway and one to the south. These openings are at times placed
as high as the head of a person standing on the floor of the third chamber, but there
are some which are only a few feet above the probable level of the floor. They appear
to be characteristic of the central room and of the third story.
COSMOS mindeleff's description
The most comprehensive description of Casa Grande is by Mr.
Cosmos MindeleflF. (Pis. 8-10.) As this is available to all who have
access to the reports of the Bureau of American Ethnology, it is not
here quoted in its entirety,- but reference is made to certain points,
some of which were first brought out by this talented author.
The name Casa Orande has been usually applied to a single stric-
ture standing near the southwestern comer of a large area covered
by mounds and other debris, but some writers have applied the term
to the southwestern portion of Compound A, while still others have so
designated the whole area. The last-mentioned sQems the proper
application of the term, but throughout this paper, in order to avoid
confusion, the settlement as a whole will be designated the Casa
80 CA8A OBANDE, ABIZOKA [eth. axu. 28
Grande Group, and the single structure, with standing walls, the Casa
Grande ruin, or simply Casa Grande.
Probably no two investigators would assign the same limits to the
area covered by the group, as the margins of this area merge imper-
ceptibly into the surrounding country.
The bird's-eye views here used (pis. 11, 12) to illustrate the relation
of Casa Grande to the surrounding mounds are in general correct,
although not entirely in agreement with the results of the excavations.
According to Mindeleff, the area covered by the Casa Grande Group
''extends about 1,800 feet north and south and 1,500 feet east and
west, or a total area of about 65 acres.''
The following description of Casa Grande is from Mindeleff : ^
The Casa Grande ruin is often lefened to as an adobe structure. Adobe construc-
tion, if we limit the word to its proper meaning, consists of the use of molded brick,
dried in the sun but not baked. Adobe, as thus defined, is very largely used through-
out the Southwest, more than 9 out of 10 houses erected by the Mexican population
and many of those erected by the Pueblo Indians being so constructed; but, in the
experience of the writer, it is never found in the older ruins, although seen to a limited
extent in ruins known to belong to a period subsequent to the Spanish conquest.
Its discovery, therefore, in the Casa Grande would be important; but no trace of it
can be found. The walls are composed of huge blocks of earth, 3 to 5 feet long, 2 feet
high, and 3 to 4 feet thick. These blocks were not molded and placed in situ, but
were manufactured in place. The method adopted was probably the erection of a
framework of canes or light poles, woven with reeds or grass, forming two parallel
surfaces or planes, some 3 or 4 feet apart and about 5 feet long. Into this open box
or trough was rammed clayey earth obtained from the immediate vicinity and mixed
with water to a heavy paste. When the mass was sufficiently dry, the framework was
moved along the wall and the operation repeated . This is the tjrpical pis^ or rammed-
earth construction, and in the hands of skilled workmen it suffices for the construc-
tion of quite elaborate buildings. As here used, however, the appliances were rude
and the workmen unskilled. An inspection of the illustrations herewith, especially
of Plate Lv [here pi. 10], showing the western wall of the ruin, will indicate clearly
how this work was done. The horizontal lines, marking what may be called courses,
are very well defined, and, while the vertical joints are not apparent in the illustration,
a close inspection of the wall itself shows them. It will be noticed that the buildera
were unable to keep straight courses, and that occasional thin courses were put in to
bring the wall up to a general level. This is even more noticeable in other parts of
the ruin. It is probable that as the walls rose the exterior surface was smoothed with
the hand or with some suitable implement, but it was not carefully finished like the
interior, nor was it treated like the latter with a specially prepared material. . . .
The floors of the rooms, which were also the roofs' of the rooms below, were of the
ordinary pueblo type, employed also to-day by the American and Mexican popula-
tion of this region. . . . Over the primary series of joists was placed a layer of
light poles, 1} to 2 inches in diameter, and over these reeds and coarse grass were
spread. The prints of the light poles can still be seen on the walls. . . .
The walls of the northern room are fairly well preserved, except in the north-
eastern comer, which has fallen. The principal floor beams were of necessity laid
north and south, acipss the shorter axis of the rodm, while the secondary series of poles,
1} inches in diameter, have' left their impression in the eastern and western walls.
1 In 13th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., p. 309
rawKN] HISTORY 81
There is no setback in the northern wall at the first floor level, though there is a very
slight one in the southern wall; none appears in the eastern and western walls. Yet
in the second roof level there is a double setback of 9 and 5 inches in the western
wall, and the northern wall has a setback of 9 inches, and the top of the wall still
shows the position of nearly all the roof timbers. This suggests — and the suggestion
is supported by other facts to be mentioned later — that the northern room was added
after the completion of the rest of the edifice.
The second roof or third floor level, the present top of the wall, has a decided pitch
outward, amounting to nearly 5 inches. Furthermore, the outside of the northern
wall of the middle room, above the second roof level of the northern room is very
much eroded. This indicates that the northern room never had a greater height
than two stories, but probably the walls were crowned with low parapets. . . .
The walls of the western room were smoothly finished and the finish is well preserved,
but here, as in the northern room, the exterior wall of the middle room was not finished
above the second roof level, and there is no doubt that two stories aboye the ground
were the maximum height of the western rooms, excluding the parapet. . . .
The walls of the southern room are perhaps better finished and less well constructed
than any others in the building. The beam holes in the southern wall are r^ular,
those in the northern wall less so. The beams used averaged a little smaller than
those in the other rooms, and there is no trace whatever in the overhanging wall of
the use of rushes or canes in the construction of the roof above. The walls depart
considerably from vertical plane surfaces; the southern wall inclines fully 12 inches
inward, while in the northeastern comer the side of a doorway projects fully 3 inches
into the room. . . . The walls of the eastern room were well finished, and, except
the western wall, in fairly good preservation. The floor beams were not placed in
a straight line, but rise slightly near the middle, as noted above. The finish of some
of the openings suggests that the floor was but 3 or 4 inches above the beams, and that
the roughened surface, already mentioned, was not part of it. . . .
Openings. — ^The Gasa Grande was well provided with doorways and other open-
ings arranged in pairs one above the other. There were doorways from each room
into each adjoining room, except that the middle room was entered only from the east.
Some of the openings were not used and were closed with blocks of solid masonry
built into them long prior to the final abandonment of the ruin.
The middle room had three doorways, one above the other, all opening eastward.
The lowest doorway opened directly on the floor level, and was 2 feet wide, with
vertical sides. . . . The doorway of the second story is preserved only on the northern
side. Its bottom, still easily distinguishable, is 1 foot 6 inches above the bottom of
the floor beams. It was not over 2 feet wide and was about 4 feet high. ... In
addition to its three doorways, all in the eastern wall, the middle tier of rooms was
well provided with niches and holes in the walls, some of them doubtless utilized as
outlooks. On the left of the upper doorway are two holes, a foot apart, about 4 inches
in diameter, and smoothly finished. Almost directly above these some 3 feet, and
about 2 feet higher than the top of the door, there are two similar holes. Near the
southern end of the room in the same wall there is another^ round opening a trifle
.larger and about 4} feet above the floor level. In the western wall there are two
similar openings, and there is one each in the northern and southern walls. ... In
the second story, or middle room of the middle tier, there were no openings except
the doorway in the eastern wall and two small orifices in the western wall.
20903**— 28 ETH— 12 6
82 CASA GRANDE, ABIZONA [kth. ANN. 28
PRESENT CONDITION
Main Buildino
The following description of the Casa Grande ruin (pis. 8-10)
contains new facts derived from the author's observations and exca^
vations made in the winters of 1906-7 and 1907-8:
CONSTRUCTION
•
The walls of Casa Grande are of a fawn color slightly tinged
with red. Externally they are rough and very much eroded, but
the interior walls are plastered, still showing places that formerly, in
the words of Father £jno, were as smooth as 'Tuebla pottery."
The walls are constructed of a natural cement, commonly called
caliche by the Mexicans, composed of lime, earth, and pebbles; this
was made into blocks, which were laid in courses. These blocks are
supposed to have been made in position, the materials therefor being
rammed into bottomless baskets or wooden frames, that were raised
as the work progressed, until the wall reached the desired height.
The blocks are not of uniform size, consequently the horizontal
joints of the courses are not always the same distance apart. Although
clearly shown in the outside walls, these joints are not visible in
the interior walls on account of the plastering.
The exterior faces of the walls are not perfectly plumb, the thick-
ness of the walls at the top being much less than at the base.
Impressions of human hands appear in places in the plaster of the
north and the west room. Posts were used to support some of the
narrow walls, and stones employed for the same purpose are found
in their foundations.
ROOMS
The ground plan of the main building shows that its walls form
five inclosures, which may be termed the north, west, south, east,
and central rooms. When the walls had reached the height of about
7 feet, these inclosures were filled solid with earth, the upper surface
forming the floors of the rooms of the first story. In the north, west,
south, and east inclosures there were two rooms above each ground
room; the central toom had three stories, being one story higher than
the rooms which surrounded it.*
1 Many conflicting statements regarding the former height of Casa Qrande are on record, most authors
favoring throe or four stories. There were undoubtedly four stories counting from the level of the plain
to the top of the highest wall, as oould be seen from the outside as one approached the structure, but the
lowest story was filled solid with earth, so that inside the building there were really only three tiers of
rooms, one above the other in the central part of the ruin and two on each of the four sides. The entrance
into the lowest room was on a level with the roofs of the surrounding buildings, forming a terrace that
surrounded the base of Casa Grande. Entrance to the upper rooms was effected by means of ladders from
the outside and by hatchways. The positions of the outside doorways indicate that there were entrances
on all four sides, but the middle room had only one doorway, which was situated on the east side.
PBESENT CONDITION
WALLS
The interior walls of the north rooms in both stories are well pre-
served except in the southeast corner (fig. 1 1) , where there was prob-
ably a connection with six rooms which extended to the north wall of
the inclosure. As indicated by a series of holes in the eastern and
western walls, the floor beams extended north and soutji. The posi-
ng. II. Southeast oonsr of rotii, abowlng part of tut mO.
tion of the floors is also indicated by ledges, or setbacks, one of the
best of which appears on tlie level of the roof in the north wall of
the first story; there is also a narrow ledge on the south wall. The
east and west walls m both stories are true to the perpendicular
from base to top. The tops of the north and west walls of the second
story show setbacks, end the apertures where the beams were inserted
are clearly marked. Small holes indicating that rushes were used
84 CA8A QBAKDE, ABIZONA [etb.ann.28
in the construction of the roof are well marked in the east and west
walls of the second story. The outer face of the north wall is much
eroded near the top, exhibiting no evidences of continuation into a
third story. There was a low parapet rising slightly above the roof
on the north, as well as on the east and west walls of the north room.
Both lower and upper stories of the west room have smooth walls,
but the exterior surface of the walls of the central room, above the
line of the second floor, is rough, indicating that the western inclosure
never had more than two stories. The east wall of the west room
is slightly curved, while the west wall of the same room is straight.
Rows of holes in the east waU, which formerly received the floor beams,
are arranged somewhat irregularly. The inner faces of the walls of
the south room are finely finished, particularly on the south side,
although the wall itself is in places more broken than the north or
west walls. The holes for beams in the south wall are less regular
in arrangement than those in the north wall.
A fragment of the east wall of the south room remained standing
up to within a few years, when the repairs were made by contractors.
At one time the south room was excavated far below its original
floor, as indicated by the line of erosion on the surface of the north
wall and a corresponding line on the opposite side walls. There were
formerly two doors, one above the other, in the south wall, but the
lintel between them has disappeared, the south wall remaining in the
form of two very unsteady sections. The interior walls of the east
room are finely finished, while the exterior surface of the east wall of
the central room is very much eroded. The exterior surface of the
east wall of the central section shows the effects of exposure to the
weather, suggesting that there were but two stories to the eastern
part. The. north wall of the central rooms runs through the east
wall, without bonding, suggesting later construction of the latter. A
wide crack left in the east wall where the north wall joins is smoothly
plastered over for part of its length, a condition which implies earlier
construction. The inner walls of the central rooms are smooth; the
marks of reeds, grasses, and rafters indicate the former existence of
floors in this part of the building. The roughness of the plaster above
the line of the floor of the second story indicates that there was once
a low banquette about the room. The row of holes that accommodated
the beams of the roof of the third story is not flush with the top of
the wall but somewhat below it, indicating that the walls there were
formerly continued into a low parapet.
FLOORS
The floors of the second and third stories served as ceilings of the
first and second stories, respectively, and resemble those of the ordi-
nary adobe houses of the Southwest. The beams were small cedar
•*t
"^-
rawKBS] PRESENT CONDITION 85
logs, most of which were laid across the width of the room, their
extremities being inserted for support in the walls, or in some in-
stances laid on a ledge or in a recess. The rows of holes that accom-
modated the ends of the beams are to be seen in most of the rooms;
some of these holes are not strictly in line. Each roof was covered
with mud firmly packed down and hardened by exposure to the air
and to the constant pressure of human feet; in places appear the prints
of reeds and grasses which were formerly laid on the rafters. Many
Americans have told the writer that when they first saw Casa Grande
the ends of burnt timbers protruded from the walls. Logs were
found in several rooms, some of which were charred, while others
had been untouched by fire.
DOORWAYS AND WINDOWS
The external entrances into most of the rooms of each story of Casa
Grande were lateral, and there is reason to suppose that the rooms
in which no openings appear in the side walls were entered by hatch-
ways. As the floors have all disappeared, it is impossible, of course,
to know what or where the entrances to. rooms from the roof were*
In the lowest story was a doorway about midway in each side. Open-
ings appear in about the corresponding positions in the stories above,
except the third, where the only entrance to be seen is on the east
side. As its threshold was on a level with the roof of the second
story, this doorway probably opened on the roof of the east rooms
in that story. In addition to these external openings there were
passageways between the north, south, east, and west rooms, in the
first and second stories.
The doorway of the middle room in the first story was on the
east side.
All the doorways were constructed on the same pattern. They
averaged about 2 feet in width, and some were slightly narrower at
the top than below, Tliis decrease in width may be a survival of the
times when the conical, or beehive, form of architecture prevailed.
The masonry over the doorways is now, as a rule, more or less
broken, but it still shows holes for the insertion of logs that formed
the lintels, which were Ranged in series one above another. While
most of the lintels which supported the adobe have been wrenched
out, some remain, holding in place the heavy material of which this
part of the wall was built.
The doorway between the west and the south room has been closed
with large solid blocks of masonry.
The sills of most of the doorways are broken, but the jambs are
entire and smoothly plastered.
86 >. GASA GRANDE, ARIZONA [eth. ann. 28
There are several round apertures in the walls that may have served
for lookouts. In the east wall of the central room to the left of the
upper doorway are two such openings, each about 4 inches in diameter,
and near the south end of this room in the east wall is another. Two
similar apertures are found in the west wall of the inner room, one in
the upper story of the north wall, and another in the south wall.
Cosmos Mindeleff makes the following statement:^
The frequency of openings in the upper or third story and their absence on lower
levels, except the specially arranged openings described later, supports the hypothesis
that none of the rooms except the middle one were ever more than two stories high
and that the wall remains above the second roof level represent a low parapet.
CASA GRANDE MOUNDS
General Description
It is evident to anyone who visits Casa Grande that the historic
structure called by this name is only one of many blocks of buildings
which formerly existed in the immediate vicinity. While it is now
difficult to determine whether all these structures were contempora-
neously occupied, it is evident that the Casa Grande Group, in its
prime, was no mean settlement. Evidences of former habitations
cover much of the surface of the reservation^ and extend on all sides
far beyond its boundaries. The limits of this prehistoric settlement
are difficult to determine. The whole plain was dotted at intervals
with houses similar to those of Casa Grande, from the point where the
Gila leaves the mountains to its junction with its largest tributary,
the Salt, the valley of which is also marked by the remains of many
similar prehistoric buildings. Not all the mounds on the Casa
Grande Reservation, however, contain ruins of great buildings; many
walled structures, formerly homes of the inhabitants, have fallen,
leaving but slight traces of their existence — ^no vestiges of walls
above the surface of the ground, merely broken metates or frag-
ments of pottery scattered over a limited area. This destruction was
inevitable, owing to the fragile character of the wattled walls. Even
the foundations of heavier walls of many of the buildings are buried
in the d6bris from the upper courses.
Two types of mounds occur in the Casa Grande Group: (1) Those
containing walls of houses and (2) those consisting entirely of earth
and debris not including buried walls. The former are composed of
1 ISth Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., p. 314.
* As is well known, this reservation, through the efforts of many publl(y6plilted men and women, has
been placed under the supervision of a resident custodian. The present custodian is Mr. Frank Pinckley.
TBWKKBl CASA GRANDE MOUNDS 87
earth or clay, which has fallen from the walls, burying the founda-
tions, augmented by sand blown by the winds. Mounds of the sec-
ond class are composed solely of debris; wlien opened, some of these
show stratification, as if formed of mud or soil deposited artificially
on them from time to time in clearing out reservoirs or making
other excavations, while others contain ashes and fragments of pottery
scattered through the soil from the surface to a considerable depth.
Certain of these mounds are devoid of features suggesting artificial
Mounds of the first class admit of still further classification into
two kinds: (a) Tliose
arranged in clusters,
each resting on a plat-
form, bounded by a
surrounding wall —
these are remains of
compounds; (6) com-
pact blocks of rooms,
each without a sur-
rounding wall, known
aa clan-liouses. While
the name Casa Grande
is here applied to the
main building of one
compound (A), the
designation Casa
Grande Group of
mounds includes all the
clusters of adjacent
mounds situated on
the reservation. For
many years the main
building and a few
outlying walls (fig. 12) were the only structures projecting above the
surface, but now it is known that tlie historic Casa Grande is but one
of many aboriginal buildings in this neighborhood. Excavations
have estabUshed the fact that many mounds of the Casa Grande
Group are remains of former houses, and that there are as many
others composed of the debris of former habitations.
For convenience of study and reference the large walled inclosures
constituting the first class of mounds, called compounds, are desig-
nated A, B,C,D, and E. These will be considered in order.
Wast wall ol FoDt's room (about 1880).
88 GASA GRANDE, ABIZOKA [bts. ann. 28
Compound A
Compound A (pis. 7, 11, 12) is not only the largest^ of the Casa
Grande compounds, but is also the most important, containing as it
does the historic ruin and a few other walls of rooms standing above
ground when excavations began. The following description is quoted
from the writer's preliminary report on the excavations at Compound
A, in Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections for 1907.
The following buildings, plazas, and courts were excavated in Compound A :
(1) Southwest building; (2) northeast building; (3) rooms on west wall; (4) six cere-
monial rooms; (5) central building; (6) Font's room; (7) rooms between Casa Grande
and Font's room; (8) rooms adjoining ceremonial rooms on north wall; (9) northwest
room; (10) room near east wall ; (11) northeast plaza; (12) central plaza; (13) east plaza;
(14) southwest plaza; (15) south court.
[Hhe most important block of rooms is of course (16) Casa Grande.]
• ••«•••
1. SOUTHWEST BUILDING
Father Font wrote of Casa Grande as follows: ''The house Casa Grande forms an
oblong square facing to the four cardinal points, east, west, north, and south, and
round about it there are ruins indicating a fence or wall, which surrounded the house
and other buildings, particularly, in, the comers, where it appears there has been some
edifice like an interior castle or watch-tower, for in the angle which faces towards the
soutfhwest there stands a ruin with its divisions and an upper story. " This southwest
building is undoubtedly one of th*9 "other buildings " referred to. [Pis. 13, 14.]
In Font's plan (fig. 117) [here, fig. 3] of Compound A, a single chambered room is
represented in the southwest corner. Ba^tlett gave a plan of the cluster of rooms in this
angle, but neither Bartlett's noi; Font's plans are complete, for there are in reality six
rooms in this comer of the compound, not counting an adjacent rectangular room sepa-
rated from this cluster by a court. Several later authors have mentioned and figured
these two fragments of walls standing above a mound southwest of the main building,
and one or two have suggested that they were formerly connected with Casa Grande
by walls. The best view of these pinnacles appeared in Cosmos Mindeleff's valuable
account of the ruin.
The author's excavations of Compound A were begun at the base of the more western
of these two standing walls, at the level of the ground, where it was found that the
wall was so eroded as to be seriously undermined. It was recognized that extensive
filling in was necessary at that point, and that other repairs were imperative to keep this
fragment from falling. The fragment east of the last mentioned was, if anything, in
a worse condition, and also required protection.
Digging down below the eroded portion, there came into view a fine smooth-faced
wall, which extended several feet still lower. The excavations were then continued
north and south, following the face of the wall to the northwest and southwest angles,
laying bare the whole west wall. . . . After having traced this wall, attention was
directed to the general character and arrangement of the walls hidden below the mound
near the bases of the two fragments of walls where the excavation started. It was
found that the southwest comer of the compound is occupied by a cluster of six
rooms . . . the most picturesque of all those uncovered during the winter.
1 The dimenslonA of Compound A are as follows: The length of the west wall is 419 feet; of the east wall,
420 feet; of the north wall, 223.3 feet; and of the south wall, 215 feet. The west wall bearsnorth 3' 00' east; the
south wall, south 81* 35' east. The west wall of the main building bears north 4* W east, or south 4* aff
west, i. e., 1* 30^ out of parallel with the compound. The dimensions of the yarioua rooms may be seen
from the ground plan (pi. 6), which is drawn to scale.
E SOUTHWEST
SOUTHWEST BUILDING OF COMPOUND A
ETHNOIOGV TWENTV-EIGHTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 1'
EXCAVATED
SOUTHWEST BUILDING OF COMPOUND A, FROM THE NORTH
BUREAU or AMERICAN
t THE SOUTHWEST
FROM THE EAST
NORTHEAST ROOMS, COMPOUND A
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOQV TWENTV-EIOHTH ANNUAU Rl
I THE NORTHWEST
NORTHEAST ROOMS, COMPOUND A
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOOV
AFTER EXCAVATION SHOWINt^ NORTHEAST BUILDINQ
AREA ADJOINING CASA GRANDE ON THE EAST
FBWKB8] CASA GBANDE MOUNDS 89
2i NOBTHEAST BUILDINQ
As may be seen from the ground plan (plate xxiv) piere, pi. 6], the first historic
building, Casa Grande, was not the laxf;est in Compound A. The combined length
of the six ceremonial rooms is double that of the main building, although their width
is much less. A building standing northeast of Font's room [pis. 15, 16] is the
largest yet excavated and contains many more rooms, some of which are larger than
any in the historic building.
The arrangement of the rooms in the northeast building ... is different from
that of Casa Grande . . . but is typical of others, especially the extra-muxal
clan houses. This similarity would lead one to suspect that this building was not,
like the main building, a ceremonial, but rather a residential hous«. The t3rpical
form, to which reference is made, is that of a carpenter's try-square, or that of two
sides of a rectangle — a form that reappears in the most southerly situated of the two
clan houses on the east and the cluster of rooms in the southwest comer of Com-
pound B. The six ceremonial rooms, together with those extending eastward from
the most northerly of these along the inner sur&ce of the north wall, make also a
group of the same try-square shape. Since one arm of the northeast cluster is formed
by the east wall of the compound, it follows that this arm extends approximately
east and west, and necessarily the other arm of the try-square lies at right angles, or
north and south. . . .
There are five rooms in the east-west arm of the northeast cluster . . . two at
each end, separated by a single room. All of these rooms have comparatively massive
walls, and in most the superficial covering, or plastering, is fsAily well preserved.
[PI. 16.]
Room A, at the west end of the eastern ann of this try-square, had been partially
excavated before the Government began work at Casa Grande, but was left in such a
bad condition that parts of the east and south walls were practically destroyed. The
author repaired them, filling in the badly eroded 'oles and walls with adobe bricks
and restoring the wall as best he could to its original condition. [PI. 17.]
Room B is one of the best-preserved rooms of those excavated. It was opened down
to the level of the floor, which was found to be hard and well plastered. Midway
through the center of this room ... at equal distances from east and west walls,
there are two holes, a, a, in the floor, in each of which was a log, charred by fire,
but still standing erect. These vertical logs once supported a horizontal rafter extend-
ing from the east to the west wall, resting on both and on the vertical supports. Side
rafters were supported by this middle log, with ends resting on the north and south
walls. Upon these smaller rafters was the roof covering of reeds and clay.
The other three rooms, C, D, £, of the east-west arm of the northeast building were
excavated to their floors. Their walls were foimd to have good surface finish, "as fine
as Puebla pottery," and in one instance, D, showed superficial painting. These
rooms, D and £, have no lateral doorways, a significant fact, which strengthens the
belief that their former entrances were hatchways on the roof. None of the above-
mentioned rooms open into one another. Large stones were foimd to have been used
in the construction of the foundations of the north wall of room D.
The rooms of the east section . . . vary in size, and apparently some had lateral
doors, others hatchways. The narrow wall of the small room, G, was supported by
upright logs. A section of the fallen roof was laid bare in room H, in which the raft-
era and the clay upon them were well preserved. Apparently the rafters in this
room had simply fallen against a dide wall, the ends that formerly rested on the east
wall having decayed. ...
The walls of rooms J and K show plainly the action of fire, for large quantitiec of
charcoal filled these rooms. G has a good floor and fine surface finish on the walls.
The partitions between these rooms are, however, much broken down. In view of
their supposed domiciliary character, it is interesting to point out the absence from
these rooms of domestic utensils.
90 CASA 6BANDE ABIZONA [bth. ann. 28
3. BOOMS ON THE WEST WALL
Between the cluster of rooms occupying the southwest angle of the compound and
the single '^ bastion'' or ''castle*' at the northwest comer, there are several rooms, the
walls of which appeared when the soil was removed from the inner or east side of the
west wall.
The most characteristic of these dependent rooms, 6, is separated by a narrow
court from the northern wall of the southwest cluster. Unfortunately, one comer of
this room was cut down before its existence was detected, but wherever its four walls
were revealed they indicated a room of laige size. ... In one comer there
stood a large v|se, too fragile to remove, which was consequently left in the place
where foimd. The Casa Grande-Florence stage route formerly croased the compound
over the comer of this room directly above this vase.
On the west side of Casa Grande, or directly between the main building and the
west wall of the compound, there were excavated several rooms, H, I, and J, the
walls of which are low and single-storied. One of these rooms, J, is situated on the
northwest comer of the ruin, and has its west wall continuous with that which forms
the retaining wall of the north terrace. There are also two rooms on the southwestern
comer which bear the same relation to the terrace wall of the south side. These two
are separated by a court . . . and have low walls. There does not seem to
have been a building directly west of the main ruin and no sign of a terrace now
remains on that side. . . . The exact connections of the rooms along the west
wall, southwest of the main min, with those on the southwest comer can be made
clear only by continuation* of the work in the unexcavated part of the compound.
As shown in the ground plan, . . . there are walls standing in that part of the
compoimd; there is also a level space called the southwest plaza, situated between the
wall of the most southerly room at the southwest angle of the main ruin and the
northern wall of the room on the west wall adjacent to the building in the southwest
angle.
4. SIX CEREMONIAL ROOMS
Linear arrangement of rooms is exceptional in this compound. This row extends
from the northeast comer of the main building to the north wall of the compound, with
which the most northern room is united. The line of these rooms is not parallel with
either the east or west walls of the compound, and their longest measurements vary,
although the widths of the rooms are about uniform. Although the connection which
formerly bound these rooms to the main building has been destroyed, there is no doubt
that such a union once existed and that they were probably united to a solid terrace
which we must suppose existed on the north, east, and south sides of the main building.
Before excavations were begun, the row of ceremonial rooms was indicated only by
a ridge ... of earth extending from the northeast comer of the main building
northward. It is evident that the roof of these rooms was on a level with the floor
of the lowest rooms of Casa Grande, which communicated with the roofs of these
ceremonial rooms on the north, east, and south by means of the basal terrace, of which
mention has been made. In this way one could pass directly into these rooms
through the doorways in the middle of the sides of the main building.
The form, size, and general appearance of the walls of these six' rooms are shown in
the accompanying pla^ (plate 24) [here, pi. 6] and in plate xxx, a and b [here, pis.
18, 19]. All these rooms were excavated to their floors, the soil from them being
removed beyond the surrounding wall of the compound. Earth waa likewise taken
from the west side, opening the east portion of the northwest plaza, so that the walls
on that side now average five feet in height.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY TWENTY-EIGHTH A
FROM THE SOUTH
WALL SHOWING EFFECTS OF EARLY EROSION
SIX CEREMONIAL ROOMS, COMPOUND A
ETHNOLOGY
BOOMS, FROM THE WEST
», EAST SIDE, SHOWING WORK
CEREMONIAL ROOMS AND PLAZA, COMPOUND A
BEFORE EXCAVATION
AFTER eXCAWATION
WEST WALL OF FONT'S ROOM, FROM THE SOUTHEAST
FBWKES] CASA GRANDE MOUNDS 91
5. CENTRAL BUILDING
When work was beg^ on Compound A the central building was a low, regfular
mound . . . situated near the southeast angle of the main building, occupying
a somewhat similar relation to that comer that the first of the six ceremonial rcx)ms
does to the northeast angle. This mound was opened to the base, revealing several
intersecting walls and rooms (plate zxiv) [here, pi. 6]. When one stands at the
north wall of the compound and runs his eye along the east side of the six ceremonial
rooms, it is found that the middle wall of the central building is in the line of the eye,
which also follows the supposititious retaining wall of the east terrace of the main
building and the east boimdary wall of the southwest plaza. The southeast comer
of the main building, Casa Grande, is broken in much the same way as the northeast
angle near the six ceremonial rooms, possibly from the same cause.
6. font's room
Mange states that Father Eino said mass in the Casas Grandes, and it is generally
believed that this ceremony was performed in one of the rooms of Casa Grande. As
there were at the time of Kino's visit several other rooms in the group, some of which
were more commodious, it is interesting to speculate 'on the possibility of one of these
being that referred to.
Just east of Casa Grande was a large building (plate xxiv) [see accompanying pi.
20], formerly two stories high, which was apparently in a fair state of preservation
when Father Font visited it in 1775. So accurately has this zealous priest described
. , . and mapped this room, that it is called after him and is referred to as
"Font's room" in this article.
Mange states in his diary that "a crossbow shot farther on 12 other houses are seen
half tumbled down, also with thick walls and all with roofs burnt except one room
beneath one house, with round beams, smooth and not thick, which appear to be
cedar or savin, and over them rush reeds very similir to them and a layer of mortar
and hard clay, making a ceiling or story of very peculiar character."
Font, 70 years after, wrote: ''In front of the east door, separated from the Casa,
there is another building with dimensions from north to south 26 feet and from
east to west 18, exclusive of the thickness of the walls." . . .
Although it was possible in 16M for the observer, standing on the roof of Casa
Grande, to see the walls of all the buildings which were excavated by the author,
the best preserved of all, judging from Font's account, was that named after him.
At that time this was apparently the only two-storied building in good preservation
east of the main one, which could be designated as ''one room beneath one house."
The general appearance of this building last October (1906) is shown in the accom-
panying plate (xxxiv, a, 6,) [here, pi. 21]. The upright wall of this room was
the only fragment besides the main building above ground, with exception of the
two waUs at the southwest angle. The condition of the base of this wall necessitated
immediate repair; for, although 3 feet thick, it was so undermined that light was
visible through holes in the base. The author erected on its east side a buttress
of adobe bricks to strengthen it, and took other precautionary measures to keep
what was left from falling: The row of holes in which were formerly inserted the
ends of the rafters of the upper chamber can still be seen in the east face of the wall.
Directly west of Font's room is a passageway communicating with the central
plaza. The floor of this passageway is hard and very compact, and on one side there
were excavated an eagle skeleton and bones of several rabbits.
92 CA6A GRANDE, ABIZONA [bth. ann. 28
7. BOOMS BETWEEN CA8A GRANDE AND FONT's BOOM
EajBt of Casa Grande there were eeveral large roome, A-£ (plate xzxii, 6) (here,
pi. 21], with low maasive walls, evidently of one story. It would appear that in
ancient times these rooms joined the terrace at the base of Casa Grande, and we
may suppose that their roofs were on the level witblhe floor of the lowest room of
the historic building. Apparency these rooms were not all constructed at the same
time, the two at the north showing evidences of being older than the southern
pair. . . .
One o| these rooms, G, was found to contain much debris, consisting of pottery
fragments, chaired basketry, cloth, maize, mesquite beans, . . . marine shells, and
other objects. It appears to have been a dumping place, and as it has every ap-
pearance of having once been a room, we may suppose that it was deserted while
some of the other rooms of Compoimd A were still inhabited.
8. BOOMS ADJOINING THE MOST NOBTHEBLT OF THE SIX CEBEMONIAL
BOOMS
Adjoining the most northerly of the six ceremonial rooms on its east side, there lies
a room or court, G, surrounded by walls, which appears to have been without a
roof. ... Its floor is hard, as if made so by the tramp of many feet; its walls are
massive, with smooth surfaces. A walled-up doorway, recalling a similar feature in
the wost room of the main building, occurs in the wall separating this room from the
most northerly of the six ceremonial rooms.
In the surface of the west wall of this room, at the level of the floor, there is a deep
erosion of the wall (plate xxix) [here, pi. 22, a], due to former weathering. The south
wall of this inclosmre was evidently built since the erosion took place, for its end is so
constructed that it extends into the eroded region, following the imperfection in
the sui&ce without being itself weathered at that level. The five rooms, Gr-K,
forming the west building are large and have maasive walls. No evidences of roofs
occur, and lateral doorways are absent except in the east side of I. K shows evidence
of an east wall, and the narrow enclosure H is more of a co\urt than a room. A pile
of wooden hoes or planting sticks (plate xxxix, g) [here, pi. 76] was found on the
floor of room I.
9. NOBTHWEST BOOM
The dimensions of the room [pi. 22, b] occupying the northwest angle of Compound
A [pi. 23] appear in the accompanying plan [here, pi. 6]. . . . This room is single
storied with free waUs on two sides, the other sides being the walls of the compound.
An entrance into the compound on the north side is situated near this comer room.
The excavations revealed many ceremonial objects on the floor, which would appear
to indicate that the room was used for other than secular purposes . Household utensils,
as grinding stones, which would be expected in a living chamber, were absent. No
soot or other evidences of a fire were observed on the walls, and there were no charred
logs or rafters.
10. BOOMS NEAB EAST WALL
South of the plaza which lies to the eastward of the twoHstoried building known
as Font's room are situated the remains of some massive walls which formed a laige
square enclosiure separated from the east wall only by a narrow passage. . . .
This building was evidently formerly one story high. Its size is so great that it
is doubtful whether or not it was roofed, but if it had a roof it would be one of the
laigest rooms of Compound A.
H ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 2
6, NORTHWEST OOflNER
ROOMS AND CORNER, COMPOUND A
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHMOLOaV TWENTV-EIOHTH ANNUAL REPOBT PLATE 21
NORTHWEST CORNER, COMPOUND A
BUftlAU Of AMERICAN ETHNOLOQY
NOf^THEAST CORNER, COMK)UND A
VBWUB8] 0A8A GRANDE MOUKDS 93
11. NOBTHKA8T PLAZA
The removal of earth to a depth neceesary to show the original height of the walls
about this plaza was a work of some magnitade» but was accomplished in a short
time. . . . The plaza (plate zzyzn, a) [here, pi. 24] was not apparent until after the
position of the northeast angle of the compound had been determined and the walls
of the northeast building had been excavated.
The situation of this plaza and the fact that no doorways opened into it or tenaced
roofs looked down upon it imply that it was not a favorite one for ceremonial dances
or spectacular performances. As the walls about it are, as a rule, massive, the plaza
may have served as a safe place to which to flee for protection, and it is probable that
cabins, not unlike the Pima huts of the last generation, ^rere temporarily erected in
this and other plazas.
12. CENTRAL PLAZA
The centrally placed, and on that account probably the most sacred, plaza ... of
Compound A is surrounded by buildings, the roofs of which no doubt served as eleva-
tions from which spectators could witness the sacred dances and games. The floor of
this plaza was solid, apparently hardened by constant tramping of feet. The labor
involved in cutting down the earth in this plaza to the former floor was considerable,
it being necessary to remove many cubic yards of grout that had fallen from the thick
walls of the northeast building and the six ceremonial rooms. The southwest comer
of the plaza was not excavated, because of a laige stake to which is attached the iron
rod that serves as a guy for the northeast comer of the roof built over the ruin.
The plaza appears to have been used as a burial place, for a human skeleton ww
dug out of the floor near its southeast comer; but the body might have been buried
after the compoimd had been deserted.
Thero were excavated from this plaza, near the passageway west of the tall wall of
Font's room, the skeleton o| an eagle and several rabbit bones. It was probably cus-
tomary at Casa Grande to dfunesticate eagles for their feathers and to keep them in
confinement.
13. EAST PLAZA
This plaza was almost wholly surrounded by rooms, and from its position was evi-
dently one of the most popular of all the inclosures of this kind. From the roof of the
main building one could probably look over Font's room into this plaza. Although
the plaza is a small one, its eastern position would give it considerable ceromonial im-
portance. The acoimiulated earth was cut down to the original level and removed
outside the compound. There does not seem to be suflicient evidence that thero was
an eastern entrance way to this plaza, although it was looked for when excavationa
were made
14. SOUTHWEST PLAZA
This plaza [pi. 14, upper] adjoins the west wall of the compound, extending from the
rooms southwest of the main ruin to the first of the cluster of rooms in the southwest
angle. Although large quantities of earth were removed from this enclosure, it has
not been wholly leveled to the floor, especially on the east side, near a wall which is a
continuation of the rooms at the southwest comer of the main ruin. This wall was
exposed along its whole length, but showed no rooms on the west side, although proba-
bly there are several on the east, or imexcavated, side. ...
15. SOUTH COURT
A long court extends across the whole south end of the compound from the southwest
cluster of rooms to the east wall. Its form suggests a ball court or course for foot new.
In coimection with the former suggestion it is interesting to note that several stone
94 CASA GRANDE, ABIZONA [bth. avm. 28
balls, Buch as were used, according to Pinia legends, in a game of kicking ball, were
found in this court; this game is still practiced by the Pimas. Near one end there
was excavated a square perforated stone, recalling that through which balls were
thrown in the Nahuatl game of pelote.
As will be seen from the accompanying plan (pi. 6) of Compound
A, the whole inclosure has not been completely excavated, but enough
debris has been removed to show its general character. There are
no large unexcavated mounds remaining in this compound, and the
level space in the southeastern part was either a plaza or, more proba^
bly, the site of many habitations, whose fragile walls have fallen, rais-
ing the surface to a uniform height. On this supposition we should
look here for the remains of houses in which the majority of the peo-
ple lived.
From the study of Compound A we can get an idea of the structural
character of one of these Oila Valley prehistoric settlements. The
people lived ia clusters of houses surrounded by a common wall, which
inclosed also massive houses that served as temples or as citadels for
protection. Regarding the sociologic condition, whether each com-
poimd housed and protected many families unrelated by blood, or
clans related to one another, can not be determined from the infor-
mation available. That the compounds may have been built at
different times appears probable, but it can hardly be supposed that
one compound was completely deserted at one time and that the inhab-
itants might have moved to another site a few hundred feet away. If
these compounds were inhabited at the same time, it may be readily
supposed that there was considerable intermarriage of clans and there-
fore intermingling of blood. As no known legends speak of more
than one chief of Casa Grande, the supposition is that the inhabitants
recognized only one head. There is ground for the beUef that the
age of Compound A is not so great as that of Compound B, although
it is of considerable antiquity. Casa Grande itself seems to have
been constructed at different times, as it shows evidences of growth
by a series of additions. There are no known data by which its age
can be computed and none to determine which compound was the last
to be deserted. It is known that Compound A was a ruin in 1694, but
from the earliest accounts nothing can be ascertained which would
show how long before that date the ancients occupied the buildings.
The indications afforded by the rate of wear of the walls since the
beginning of the eighteenth century lead to the beUef that a few gen-
erations before that time Casa Grande was a populous settlement.
The orientation of the surrounding walls of the compounds and of
the buildings within them is well-marked, tliis feature appearing very
significantly in Compound A. The greatest length of all the com-
pounds is north and south. The doorways of the buildings, when
practicable, open toward the east.
K
ETHNOLOQV
FROM TH£ EAST, SMOWINO TEflflACE
COMPOUND B. BEFORE EXCAVATION
rawKM] CASA QBANDE MOUNDS 96
In certain walls is found evidence contradicting the theory that
they were built by stamping caliche into bottomless baskets or boxes,
as generally taught, and as indicated by the joints on the west side
of the main ruin. At various places in the walls may still be seen
masses of clay patted into shape by human hands, the imprints of
which are clear. Some of these masses, which are just large enough
to have been handled by one workman, were evidently dumped on
the wall and subsequently were not -so stamped that they lost their
original shape.
Compound B
When work on it began (pi. 25) Compound B consisted of two
mounds resting on a platform, the bases around both mounds being
BO filled in with earth that the surroimding wall formed the edge of
a platform or terrace. The most extensive of these inclosed mounds
(Pyramid B) occupied the southwest comer of the platform. The
largest and most massive (Pyramid A) has a flat top, from which the
visitor can see, in clear weather, the cupola of the courthouse in
Florence, 12 miles away.
Compound B (fig. 13) is 840 feet northeast of Compound A. Its
excavated surrounding wall on the east and north sides, respectively,
measures 299 feet and 180 feet; the west side is 297 feet long and the
south side 167 feet. The compound is oriented approximately north
and south (pis. 26, 27).
When the excavation of Compound B began no part of the sur-
rounding wall was visible, its existence being indicated only by a
slight rise above the level of the surrounding plain. The first work
attempted was the determination of the angles or comers of this
compound. This work brought to light a massive wall surrounding
the whole inclosure. It is evident from the amount of d6bris that
had accumulated on the outside of this wall that it must have been
formerly at least 7 feet high. The accumulated earth was removed
to a depth of 4 feet, the present average height of the wall. This wall
was found to be much higher on the west side than on the east, south,
or north, and in order to obtain a level for the drain constructed
around the compound to carry away the surplus water, it was neces-
sary to remove debris on the west wall to a depth of at least 9 feet.
Below that depth many circular depressions, similar to those used by
Pima in mixing mortar for the walls, were found, and it is believed
that the former level of the foundation of the compound was reached
on that side.
None of the outside walls of Compoimd B laid bare by excavation
were found to be straight and none were, exactly perpendicular.
The thickness of the siurounding wall varies; in some places it is
96
CASA GRANDE, ABIZOKA
[BTH. AN v. 28
as much as 6 feet and is, on the average, about 3} feet. Outside
the wall, about 7 feet from the former foundation, was dug a shallow
ditch surrounding the whole compound. This ditch was continued
FlO 13.
/67
Ground plan of Compound B (made before completion of excavation), showing lielght of walla
in feet.
into deeper ones extending from the northwest and southwest corners
(pi. 35) in order to carry all superfluous water from the foundations
of the walls into a natural depression some 50 feet from the com-
pound. (PL 28.)
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOQV TWENTY-EIOHTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE Z9
INTERIOR
NORTHEAST CORNER, COMPOUND B
L REPORT PLATE 30
6, ROOMS EAST OF PVRAMtO B
CORNER AND ROOMS, COMPOUND B
N ETHNOLOQr TWENTY-EIOHTM ANNUAL Ri
E THE WEST WALL
LOOKINa SOUTHEAST FROM PYRAMID A
WALLS AND ROOMS, COMPOUND I
■F AMERICAN ETMNOLOOV TWENTV-EIOMTM A
SOUTH WALL
PLAZA AND WALLS, COMPOUND 8
wawsmal OASA GBANDE MOUNDS 97
A subterranean room provided with a cemented floor, walls; and
fireplace, was discovered near the northeast comer, under the foun-
dation of the exterior wall.* This was evidently a pit-house inhabited
before the massive wall had been constructed and antedating the
structures built above it. Traces of similar subterranean rooms are
found within the compound, near the same comer (pi. 29).
The outside wall of Compound B was constructed, like that of
Casa Grande proper, of huge blocks of natural cement, which were
made where they now rest, the marks of successive blocks being
visible at several points where the union is not perfect. Evi-
dences that this wall had been repaired by ancient builders are seen
in many places, and it appears that the form and direction of the
original wall have been modified by its enlargement at the southeast
comer (pi. 30) . Within the indosure surrounded by the massive exterior
wall were found evidences of two kinds of buildings : First, those made
of cement blocks, characteristically massive; second, those having
fragile walls supported by upright posts. Some of the waUs of build-
ings of the former class still remain upright, but those of the latter
have fallen, their positions being indicated only by decayed stumps.
To the first type belong also well-plastered floors, in which are present
circular depressions that served as fireplaces. If we interpret build-
ings of the first type as temples used for ceremonial purposes, the
fragile-walled buildings may be regarded as habitations of the people
comparable with those in which the Pima have lived since known to
history.
PYRAMID A
The two large pyramidal elevations, occupying much of theinclosure
of Compound B, were found on excavation to be remarkable struc-
tures, suggesting a style of architectiure common in Mexico. It
appears that the larger and most northerly of these structures, desig-
nated on the map as A (pis. 31, 32, 33), was a pyramid, formerly
marked by the presence of two or three terraces, the massive walls of
which still rise at one point to a height of more than 10 feet. The top of
this pyramid (pi. 31) is square and level. A deep excavation made in
its north end revealed a long chamber, suggesting the north room of
Casa Grande. On the southwest side of this pyramid shallow exca-
vations revealed several cemented floors, one below another, and verti-
cal walls indicated by decayed posts which formerly supported them;
each of these floors contains a well-made fire pit. The shape of the
rooms (pis. 32, 33), as shown by the positions of the stumps, was rec-
tangular; the length was double the width. A doorway, indicated by
the absence of upright logs from one side, was just in front of the fire-
• ■ — — — ■
I The diagonals of none of the rooms at Caaa Orende are exactly equal In length.
20903**— 28 BTH— 12 7
98 CA8A QRAKDE. ABIZONA [bth.A3IN.28
plac6; which itself was situated not in the center of the room but
slightly nearer one side. The existence of these floors, or evidences
of rooms situated one above the other, would seem to indicate that a
considerable portion of this pyramid was formed by accumulations
of earth resulting from the decay of habitations; the supposition
is that this accumulation continued through a long period, and
that new habitations were built on the d6bris of those below. Exca-
vations extended in the southwest angle of the pyramid to a level
with the outside plazas showed that there were in this mound seven
layers of floors, indicating by the above theoiy seven successive con*
structions or times of habitation.
FTBAHID B
Pyramid B (pi. 34), which is situated in the southwest section of
Compound B^ is separated in part from the west wall of the compound
by a plaza 100 feet long by 50 feet wide. The pyramidal form, so
well seen in Pyramid A, does not appear in Pyramid B (pi. 36, h),
the shape of which is trisquare, a mound extending north and south
with a western extension. On the top of this mound, as on Pyra-
mid A, were found floors of houses whose upright walls were indi-
cated by decayed posts; below were other floors, resembling those
found on top of Pjo-amid A. There were remains of a shrine (pis.
26, 35) at the southwest comer of the top of Pyramid B ; in it were
found fragments of copper and many strangely-formed stones. The
north end of Pyramid B (pi. 35), extending toward the west wall
of the compound and forming the north wall of the southwest plaza,
was occupied by two rooms, the massive walls of which are 8 feet
high and average 4 feet thick. The ground plan of these rooms
resembles in shape a trisquare. Their common west wall is separated
from the west wall of the compound by a passageway, through which
one formerly could enter the southwest plaza from the central plaza.^
The walls show no indication of a side entrance, and no proof was
obtained that the rooms were roofed; the most logical supposition
is that they were entered from the top of the adjacent moimd by
means of ladders or notched logs. Each of these rooms had a
fireplace near the middle of the room, well-plastered floors, and
vertical walls; they have no lateral openings for communication
with each other.
In one of these rooms was found a mass of caliche about the size
of a small keg, which had a cavity in one end, while the opposite
extremity was rounded. This object resembled a rude stove or
— ^^^^—^^^^—^^^^^-^^^^^~^-^^^-^^—~^^^— ^^—
1 ThMe nanow panaiceways exist aIm In Oompoond A, as between Font's room and the maasive-walled
structures east of the main building. •
BUREAU OF AMERICAN
VIEWS OF PYRAMIDS A AND B, COMPOUND B
ETHNOLOOV TWENTY-EIOMTH AKNU*L REPOHT PLATE 35
ilHWEST CORNER
CORNERS OF COMPOUND B
L fiEPORT PLATE a
PLAZAS AND ROOMS, COMPOUND B
BUREAU OF AMERICAN E
S OF SOUTHEAST COHNER
e, ROOMS EAST OF PVRAMIO B
PLAZA AND ROOMS, COMPOUND I
rawKBB] CAS A GRANDE MOUNDS 99
oven,* the cavity being used fonnerly for storage of fuel. A some-
what similar object was found buried under or near the west wall of
Compound C (see fig. 14). The other objects found in these rooms
are evidently ceremonial and perhaps served somewhat the same
purpose as those found in the large rooms of Casa Grande.
In the floor of what appears to have been either a room or a small
plaza, on top of Pyramid B at its southwest comer (pi. 35), was foimd
a shallow pit or depression about a foot in diameter, which had a
hemispherical cover made of caliche; this cover, wliich was perforated
by two holes, fitted accurately into the depression. The purpose of
this pit and cover was not ascertained, nothing being found that
afforded any clue to their use.
BOOMS EAST OP PYRAMID B
The inclosure east of Pjrramid B and south of Pyramid A forms
a large plaza, in the southern part of which are several buildings
of massive proportions. These (pis. 30; 36, a; 37, 6, c) have been
excavated to their floors, which are well preserved. Two of these
rooms are especially noteworthy. These were formerly a single story
in height and show no evidence of ever having been higher. Although
separated by a narrow court or passageway, both rooms open into
the same court through well-made doorways the jambs and thresholds
of which are smooth and well preserved. When these rooms were
uncovered it was found that their floors were made of hardened
adobe upon which, when first brought to light, coidd be seen impres-
sions of matting, laid upon them when the room was inhabited.
This would seem to show that the ancient people of Casa Orande
used a kind of sleeping mat, similar to that employed by the Pima
Indians. The preservation of these impressions for so long a time is
certainly remarkable.
The walls of these rooms are covered with several layers of smooth
plaster, each very carefully applied. The size and shape of the
rooms lead to the belief that they were connected with ceremonial
rather than with domestic life. In the open places (pi. 37, 6, c) adjoin-
ing these chambers, the former existence of rectangular rooms is
indicated by rows of holes in which were found decayed fragments
of wooden posts that had formerly supported the fragile walls,
long since fallen. Where possible, these were carefully replaced by
new logs. The nimiber of these habitations could not be determined.
Their floors may be traced by the remaining cement, hardened by
the tramping of many feet, but no fireplaces were found* in these
floors or in the walled buildings east of Pyramid B.
1 Like the pits the Hopi use in baking their ceremonial pudding (pt^me).
100 OA8A GRANDE, ABIZONA Lbth. amn. 28
SOUTHEAST PLAZA
In the southeast plaza (pi. 30, b) of Compound B evidences of several
rooms were brought to light, although for th6 greater part their once
massive walls were very much broken down. Here were found
indications of fragile-walled rooms, their floors situated one above
another, separated by a few inches of soil. There had evidently
been a change of plan in this quarter which had led to secondary con-
struction, thus modifying more or less the original architecture.
The exterior walls of the compound at this point and for about 50
feet north along the east wall are double, l^thin the inclosure
near the southeast angle ^ appeared rows of decayed posts, remains
of walls, arranged in quadrangular form, indicating the former
existence of several fragile-walled dwellings.
East of Pyramid A, between it and the east wall of the compound,
were traced portions of the massive walls of a large building, very
much mutilated. To the north of this building are remains of three
fine rectangular buildings having well-formed floors, fireplaces, and
walls.
NORTH PLAZA
Due north of Pyramid A, between it and the north wall, from
which it is separated by a narrow passage, was found a large building
fully 40 feet long; the floor is partially subterranean and the door-
way opens to the south. Between this building (pi. 41, a, b) and
the northeast comer of the compound were other massive rooms
the walls of which are destroyed to so great an extent that their
ground plan can not satisfactorily be traced. In this region reoc-
curs evidence of successive strata of floors (pi. 41, a), suggesting
repeated occupancy of the same site by the rebuilding of new houses
on the debris formed by the destruction of older ones. Almost all
the north side of this compound is occupied by a room 15 feet wide
and extending in length about 80 feet eastward from the north-
west angle. The use of a room of this shape and size is conjectural.
There is no evidence of the former existence in this area of rooms
of fragile construction.
WEST ABEA
The west area of the inclosure (pis. 36, b; 38; 39, 6), or the section
north of Pyramid B, was wholly covered with fragile-walled build-
ings, the remnants of which show that they were built along streets
and around courts, which can still readily be traced. Here occur also
renmants of thick walls, indicating dwellings of moderate height but
without large rooms. It would seem from the arrangement of the
rows of holes in which the upright supports of the former walls stood,
1 It was not poflBible to trace the rooms by means of the remahilng walls in the southeast angle of this
Inclosure, owing in part to the dilapidated condition of these walls.
TWENTY-EIOHTH ANNUAL REPOBT PLATE 38
ROOMS NORTH OF PYRAMID B
TYPICAL ANCIENT RESERVOIR, AND ROOMS OF COMPOUND B
AMERICAN ETHNOLOaV TWENTY-EIGHTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 39
b. WEST END OF NORTH WALL
WALLS OF COMPOUND B
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOOV
PICTOGRAPMS FROM CASA GRANDE AND VICINITY
• •
••:•.
FBWKEsl CASA GRANDE MOUNDS lOi
that a street^ extending north and souths bisected this section of the
compound and that rooms were arranged along both sides. These
rooms were rectangular, with a fire-pot or fireplace in the floor of
each, at or near the center; the doorways are in the longer side,
about midway.
Attention should be called to a room of this row, on the north
side of the street about west of the middle pyramid. West of the
great Pyramid A was an inclosiire in the walls of a house, containing
three small stone idols (pi. 26, shrine) and a niunber of oddly
formed stones, all suggestive of shrine deposits. ^
When the workmen who had excavated this shrine and removed its
contents ceased work, one of the Pima made a synlbol called tcuhvJei
("house of Tcuhu, '' fig. 52) on the pile of excavated sand. Although
disclaiming any knowledge of connection between this figure and
the contents of the shrine, he gave reason to believe there was some
meaning not yet discovered. The same symbol was found by
Mindeleff on a wall of Casa Grande (see pi. 40).
The collection of stones from this shrine is among the most re-
markable the writer has ever seen, being eqyaled only by the con-
tents of certain shrines of the Hopi. Most of these stones had been
brought from a distance; they consist of bowlders and pebbles
from the Gila, twisted and contorted fragments of lava, petrified
wood, and objects of sandstone and other rocks, botryoidal in form.
There are also pigments of various colors — ^green copper ore, white
kaolin, and black shale, with fragments of red iron oxide.
The general appearance of Compound B after excavation leads
to the behef that it contained fewer massive-walled buildings than
Compound A, and that the number of more perishable habitations
was much larger. ,
The character of the mounds of Compound B and the evidence
of great erosion (greater than in Compound A) they exhibit suggest
considerable age, an idea confirmed by the superposed strata of
floors and the subterranean walls and *' pit-rooms" under the boundary
walls. Compound B is believed to be much older than Compound
A, but whether it was abandoned before the latter was erected is
a question which can not be answered. The age of Compound B
as compared with that of the other compounds is also hypothetic;
few data remain that can be used in such comparisons.^
1 These objects are described on pp. UO, 121. The signiflcanoe to be attached to these stones is not quite
dear, but the custom of collecting different forms in an Inclosure is recorded from many pueblo ruins and
still survives in several modem pueblos. In searching for an explanation of their significance the mind
naturally ascribes to the Casa Qrende shrines and their contents the same meaning as to the pueblo
counterparts, but similar collections of odd-shaped stones having other meanings attached thereto are
widespread among prehistoric peoples.
s The two compounds, A and B, with Clan-house 1 (pis. 11, 12, 27, 44), were modeled by Mr. H. W«
Hendley, of the U. S. National Museum, under the writer's direction, for the Alaska-Yukon-Paciflo
Exposition, at Seattle. These models, now in the National Museum, illustrate more graphically than
can any descriptions the resemblances and differences between these structures.
' -102 CASA GRANDE, ARIZONA [bth. ann. 28
SUBTERRANEAN ROOMS
•
Subterranean rooms were found near the northeast comer of Com-
pound B, apparently filling the whole of that section. The best-
preserved of these (pis. 29; 41, b, c) lies directly under the east wall,
which passes over it at an angle. It seemed important to protect
this room by erecting a roof over it, as shown in plates 29; 41, c.
The position of the wall, of the floor beneath, and of the fireplace
several feet below it and the level of the plain, indicates that these
* subterranean structures were made before the wall of the compound
was constructed (pi. 41, c).
The presence of subterranean rooms under the walls of Compound
B proves that the people of this region lived in pit-dwellings on that
site before they constructed the wall. This fact points to a belief
that the pit-dwelling is the oldest form, and if so search for the kin
of the original inhabitants of the Gila-Salt Valleys may be made
among those dwelUng in similar habitations. Taken in connection
with the existence of cremation, this clue serves to direct attention
to California tribes, thus adding weight to a legend that the pre-
historic peopUng of southern Arizona was by migration by way of the
mouth of the Gila.
Compound C
Compound C, situated due west of B, is, on account of its moder-
ate height, the least conspicuous of all the compounds. As there are
no moimds within the inclosure it seems never to have had extensive
buildings, but to have been merely a rectangular area surrounded by
a wall, in which was clustered a large number of fragile-wailed rooms
that once served for dwellings but are now destroyed . (Fig. 14.) The
outside dimensions of the compound are not far from 300 feet long
by 40 feet^ wide, and the surrounding wall in places was 4 feet in
thickness and probably breast high. There appears to have been
a gateway about midway in the west side, and at the northwest
comer was once an opening of considerable size. The shape of the
compound is not perfectly rectangular, the whole northern portion
having been much more eroded by the elements than the southern
end. In the southern section still remain fragments of walls, some
of which were a part of buildings of considerable size, possibly of
communal nature. Most of the walls of buildings in Compound C
were supported by upright posts, the stumps of some of which still
remain, notwithstanding the walls themselves have fallen. In the
southeast comer rose a small square tower, or lookout, the founda-
tions of which are well preserved, although the portion of the waUs
above ground is entirely destroyed.
The greater part of Compound C was covered with rows of houses,
the floors and fragments of the waUs of winch, although present in
ETHNOLOQy
1. HEPOBT PLATE 4
1. NORTHEAST CORNER
i, WALLS OF SUBTERRANEAN BOOM, NORTHEAST CORNER
C. EAST WALL AND ROOF OVER SUBTERRANEAN ROOM
SUBTERRANEAN ROOMS AND CLAY-PITS
FIWKBB]
OASA OBANDE MOUNDS
103
several places, are now very much dilapidated. All the evidence
indicates that this compound was of much later construction than
Compounds A and B and that it was not inhabited long enough to
have temples or speciaUzed rooms for ceremonial purposes.
Not far from the west side of this compound can be traced for a
considerable distance the remains of an irrigating ditch, which extends
from the Gila to a
point west of the Casa
Grande Group of ruins.
This ditch entered the
Gila at a point higher
up, about 3 miles from
the ruin.
Near this compound ,
averaging about 2 0
feet distance from the
surrounding walls, is
a succession of low
mounds resembling
the refuse-heaps found
in the vicinity of the
other compounds.
From the numerous
fragments of pottery
that are found on them,
it may be inferred that
some of these mounds
were perhaps places
where pottery was
fired; others of cir-
cular shape show on
their surface c h a r -
coal and wood ashes.
These elevations may
possibly have been
used in some instances
for the cremation of
human bodies. Exca-
vations in mounds of
this kind revealed al-
ternate layers of charcoal and ashes, with drifted sand deposited
upon each. From the relatively large number of potteiy fragments
and stone implements in this mound it appears that the place
was formerly inhabited by a large number of persons. The inclos-
ing wall served as a protection for the buildings within it that have
long since fallen.
Flo. 14. Ground pkn of Compound C.
104
casa grande, abizqna
Compound D
[BTH. ANN. 28
Compound D (fig. 15)^ which is situated about the same distance
east of Compound B as is Compound C in the opposite direction, is
Fio. 15. Oroond plan of Compound D.
rectangular in shape and oriented about north and south, as are other
Casa Grande compounds. It was of apparently the same general
nWKBa] CASA QBANDE HOUNDB lOS
character as the others, containing a massive building centrally
placed, the walls of which have been greatly eroded by the elements.
Within the surrounding wall were also numerous rooms whose
fragile walls have fallen, burying their floors two or three feet below
the surface. At the periphery of one of the floora a row of holes in
which upright posts formerly stood could readily be traced, show-
ing that the room was rectangular in form and had a doorway on
one side. The fireplace, a round depression in the floor just in
front of the doorway, still contained ashos. Tlie conditions here are
similar to those in
Compound B. The
massive-walled
buildings doubtless
served as granaries
or possibly ,were
devoted to reUgious
purposes; the frag-
ile-walled struc-
tures were the
dwellings of the
people. The eroded
appearance of this
compound suggests
great age, stamping
it as one of the
oldest of the Casa
Grande Group.
In the character
of the masonry the
massive-walled
buildings of Com-
pound D closely
resemble those else-
where described.
They are not as
high as the COrre- Fm. le. Huul-prlnM and eroded Imw o( wall of house in Compoand n.
sponding structures
of Compounds A and B, having been greatly weathered. The sur-
rounding wall was low, in no place above the surface of tlie ground,
and its course could not be traced by excavation. The central
building was apparently connected by a wall with one side of the
wall of the compound.
On the plastering of one of these buildings are black impressions
of human hands (%. 16). The rooms were excavated to their floors,
but no objects of importance were found.
106 CASA GRANDE, ARIZONA [bth. ann. 28
Compounds E and F
Remnants of large walls identified as boundaries of several other
compounds were traced at various places in the reservation, the most
conspicuous being those of Compounds E and F, which could be
followed for a considerable distance west of Compound A. These
inclose low white mounds, sparsely covered with mesquite and other
growth, which seem to contain the remains of massive buildings, the
walls of which have fallen or have been worn down by rains to a level
with the plain.^ In this vicinity there are numerous other low mounds
without walls which bear outward resemblance to refuse-piles.
No excavations were made in these mounds, although there is evi-
dence that some of them would repay examination. The presence
of fragments of pottery, and broken stone objects, apparently worked
by hand, suggests sites of many former habitations.
Clan-house 1
In addition to the compounds, or structures inclosed by a com-
mon wall, there is a type of thick-walled buildings at Casa Grande from
which this wall is absent or at least has not yet been discovered. The
best examplei of this type is the so-called Clan-house 1 (pis. 43, 44),
one of the most striking group of rooms excavated during the writer's
field work in the second year.
Gan-house 1 is 740 feet due east of Compound A. The group of
rooms brought to light by excavation possibly belonged to a large
compound the boundary walls of which had been practically buried or
totally destroyed. When work on Clan-house 1 began, two ash-
colored treeless mounds rising a few feet above the level of the plain
were all that was visible, the space between the mounds being covered
with scattered trees, bushes, and cacti. The results of the excava-
tion appear in the accompanying plan (fig. 17), in the bird's-eye view
(pi. 43), and in the illustration of the model (pi. 44).
dan-house 1 has 11 rooms (A-J, M, fig. 18) inclosing a plaza, its
outside measurements, exclusive of the annex (L, K), being 113
feet long and 49 feet wide. The longer walls extend east and
west, instead of north and south as in the compounds. In addi-
tion to the 11 rooms which form the main portion of the struc-
tures excavated, there are three low-walled rooms on the east side,
which we may call the annex; one of the main purposes of this struc-
ture was to contain the grave (fig. 18) of the former chief, possibly the
owner of the whole building. From various circumstances it is believed
that the walls of this annex were built later than the remainder.
The walls of Clan-house 1 are massive (pi. 45), averaging 4 feet in
thickness; the altitude of the highest is 10 feet. As shown in
> The appearenoe of the tops of walls of Otla ruins, before excaTatlon, Is shown In plate 42.
[
ETHNOLOQY TWENTY-EIGHTH A
APPEARANCE OF COMPOUND-WALLS BEFORE EXCAVATION
1
I 3
FEWKES]
GASA GBANDE MOUNDS
107
broken sections^ these walls were supported in part by upright logs
(pis. 44y 45), but were constructed of huge cubes of rammed natural
cement, in the same way as the walls of Casa Grande. The arrange-
ment of the 11 rooms composing Clan-house 1 is as follows: On both
the north and south sides there is a row of rooms the breadth of which
is about uniform, while the length varies; the room at the east end of
each series is the largest. There are fiye rooms (F-J) in thjB series on
the north and four (A-D) in the series on the south. To the west of
the plaza, between these rooms and connecting them on this end, are
two rooms (E, M), which have the^ highest walls and were apparently
the most important rooms in Gan-house 1. These rooms occupy
Fio. 17. Ground plan of Clan-hoase 1.
•
about half of the space between the north and south series of rooms,
the remaining area consisting of a plaza, or open space, having an
entrance from the room on the west side. The several rooms in the
series on the north side (F-J) do not conmiunicate, nor have they
external passageways except in two instances (G, J) ; also, room D
in the southwest comer communicates with a large room (M) at the
west end of the plaza. In the middle of the centrally placed (M) of
the 1 1 rooms above mentioned was found a seat (figs. 19, 20) facing
the south, made of a great block of natural cement.
It is suggested that dan-house 1 was a structure similar to Casa
Grande proper and pertained to the worship of the six primary
108 CASA G&ASDE, ABtZOSA :«™. .iit -■-
points — north, west, south, fast, above, and below. It is an inifr-
esting fact that the numba- of nxHiks in Oan-bouse 1. «i«ptin£ the
annex, is exactly the same as in Casa Grande. In the fwmer, how-
ever, the U rooms are one stoiy in hei^l. whcrras in Oasa Grande
there were five rooms in each of two lower Tories and oae room in
a third.
Perhaps the most remarkable of the several rooms in Clan-
house 1 are the two maadve-waUed inrlosurrs (K. L^ <mi the north
side, which have
be«« designated
"the annex" (pi.
46 . One of these
(K serats to have
bent merely an i^>«i
space surrounded bv
lliitk walls formeriy
hijAer than at pres-
ent. Id this inclo-
sure were found tlie
remains of a walled-
up cyst of natural
cement, one side of
wiut-h was built con-
tinuous with the
south wall; the other
sides of this cyst .vis-
ible from the nxim.
were dectwaled witL
figures of birds anJ
other animals,
painted red.
In the intoiM* ol
tliis cyst, or rude
sarcophagus (6s.
human skeleton extended at full length with the liead directed to the
east ; near the head was a receptacle for mortuary ofTerings. From the
nature of the objects associated with this skeleton and the special
receptacle apparently made for them, it is supposed that the remains
were those of an old priest, possibly of a chief, who once occupied
these rooms. The mortuary objects are figured and described later
(see pp. 124, 127, 130) and their special significance, so far as caji q<^w
be determined, is discussed. They appear to be priestly paraphernalia.
' to those now used in ceremonies by priests of the Puet..
J OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY TWENTV-EIOHTH ANNUAL ftEPOftT PLATE 4S
I, FROM THE NOATHEAST
.;v?»>''',' ANNEX TO CLAN-HOU&E
FBWKtB] CASA GRANDE MOUNDS 109
Indians. All the facts gathered show that this burial chamber was
built after the main building was constructed, but its age, as compared
with that of the other compounds, b unknown. In the sand outside
the walls were found one or two clay vessels containing burnt human
■ bones, covered with clay disks, which are supposed to be the partially
cremated remains of inhabitants of this building. The two methods
Via. 18. SMt In mom it, Clan-hoow I, looking ntcUMBat
of disposal of the dead — inhumation and cremation^were practised
in all the compounds of Casa Grande.'
It is sometimes stated that the priests of the Gila compounds were
always buried in houses wliile the less-favored classes were cremated,
their calcined bones being deposited in cinerary urns or vases that later
were buried on the borders of the mounds where they had been com-
mitted to the flames. While not able to prove or disprove tliis theory,
1 At tbe prtacnt dBj- the Pima burr Ihclr itad, uid lAe gnvH ol Xtit shamani are dlffcreat Crom time Ol
gtho- pcDide. The custom of bumliiE the dead does not nov exist unoag these peoi^e.
110 CASA OBAKDE, ABIZONA [btu. *:<!(. 38
it is believed that the grave of the chief of Clan-house 1 has an impor-
tant bearing on this question. Here, aa stated, a man was found
buried with care in a rude sarcophagus evidently constructed for the
purpose. This is the only example known to the writer of an intra,
mural grave of this character, although other burials within house -
inclosures have been found, namely, in the floors of one of the rooms
Fia. 20. Swtlaroamll, Clsii-liaiual,l«
of the block in the southwest comer of Compound A. A human
skeleton was also excavated from the plaza west of the northeast
building of the same compound, at the point marked "skeleton" in
the ground plan (pi. 6) of that compound.'
I The writn ia Irkdlued lo regard ihb burbU u having bc«n made long a(l«r the abaDdoninmC d( the
canipound, and the nine may be true of the " Eagle burial" also, near the northwest angle ol Font's nnm.
Near the latter, however, were Cound Ingmenia of decayed puts, as l[ put of the corral in whirl) thttsfle
had been confined. The ends ol these posts were Inserted In hi^es bMaw the general level a( the plaia.
fbwkbs] gasa qbande mounds 111
Refuse-heaps
The large structures, especially compounds A, B, and C, are sur-
rounded by refuse-heaps, the surfaces of which are strewn in some cases
sparingly, in others plentifully, with fragments of pottery and with
ashes and other evidences of human occupancy. No remains of
house walls were found in these mounds and their structure shows
that they may be regarded as dumping places for the habitations in
the vicinity. Some of these heaps were thrown up from neighboring
depressions, or reservoirs, and their stratification indicates that layers
of earth were deposited on them at different times. A vertical
section exhibits beds of ashes and other refuse alternating with sand
and soil, showmg how the mounds increased in size.^
Distinct from these are the small mounds or elevations, rising a
foot or two above the plain, that likewise mark man's presence.
These mounds indicate the former existence of dwellings in the open,
and it is reasonable to suppose that outside the compounds, espe-
cially along the irrigation ditches, there were isolated dwellings some-
what resembling the modem Pima houses. While these may have
been shelters used by farmers only while planting or watching their
crops,, they show that the country around the compounds had its
quota of inhabitants. Within and near the compounds these houses
may have been very numerous, so closely arranged as to give the
appearance of a village, in the middle of which rose the great com-
munal structure that served as a place of refuge in great emergencies
or for ceremonies when desired.
A mound situated a short distance east of Compound B was exca-
vated to the depth of 9 feet. Trenches were dug across it at right
angles, bisecting the mound east and west, north and south. This
mound was found to contain fragments of pottery, sticks, charcoal,
and other refuse; also the remains of several skeletons, extended at
length, the skulls of one or two being in fairly good condition. It
thus appears that the inhabitants of Casa Grande buried some of
their dead in mounds and others in the floors of houses and plazas.
As will presently appear, they also cremated the dead here as else-
where in the Gila and Salt River Valleys.
Reservoirs
It has been already mentioned that, scattered over the area occu-
pied by the Casa Grande Group of ruins, there are several depressions
into which drains from the compounds have been run. The largest
and deepest of these is found northeast of Compoimd B. These
depressions, which have no masonry walls, appear to be the places
1 One of the largest of these refuse-heaps lies between Compound A and Clan-house 1, nearer the former.
This mound, which extends about parallel with the east wall of Compound A, contains many fragments of
pottery.
112 CASA GRANDE, ABIZOKA [■TH.ANir.28
from which was obtained the caliche of which the buildings are
made. One or two of the depressions are so situated with respect
to the largest buildings that the adobe of which the houses were built
may have been carried at times a considerable distance.
Similar areas inclosed by artificial circular ridges of earth are found
in several of the clusters of mounds in the Gila and Salt River
Valleys, among which may be mentioned the one in the group near
Adamsville and the reservoir at Casa Blanca. The Escalante Group,
situated near the Phoenix-Florence Railroad, also contains a similar
reservoir. In the country south of the Southern Pacific Railroad,
inhabited by a group of Indians of Piman stock called the Qua-
hatika (Kwahadt), similarly shaped depressions are recorded, some
of which are still used as reservoirs at certain seasons. This is like-
wise true of so-called Indian tanks (Pima, vashJci), to the east of Casa
Grande, near the Santa Catalina Moimtains, and elsewhere (pi. 38).
Certain areas marked by no mounds or depressions may have
served as race courses or dance places, the existence of which is men-
tioned in legendary accounts of Casa Grande.
On the southwest side of the large reservoir is a depression from
which were obtained the sand and earth out of which walls were
made, and a similar depression on the east side may have been due
to a similar cause. There are depressions in the surface near Clan-
house 1 and Compound D, and those near the western clan-houses ^
served the same purpose.
From remains of ancient irrigating ditches in the neighborhood of
the several compounds it is evident that water from the Gila River
was conducted over the plain west of Casa Grande. Here and
there, especially near the large mounds, occur numerous depressions
in the earth's surface, some of which are possibly reservoirs, or places
where the water was stored for irrigation, drinking, and other purposes.
Most of these depressions are surrounded by a ridge of earth, by which
their capacity was increased and the chance of overflow diminished.
Their prevailing shape is oval. The indications are that they have
been filled to a considerable extent with drifting sand since Casa
Grande was deserted.' The largest is situated about midway of a
Une extending from the northwest comer of Compound A to the south-
east comer of Compound C. It was supposed that this reservoir was
lined with a cement wall, but a section exposed through the rim on the
south side, which was solid sand throughout, revealed no such condi-
tion. It is interesting to note that the floor of this reservoir is now
thickly overgrown with trees and bushes, although without water.
1 There are mounds west of Compound A, which are here referred to as "western clan-houses," but these
were not excavated , although traces of caliche walls were found in them. Potsherds were abundant.
s Many of the casat grajidea in the Qila-Salt region have similar reservoirs, or circular depressions with
raised rims. Cushlng's excavation of one of these depressions convinced him that it was not a reservoir
but a ceremonial chamber.
rawKBS] CASA QBANDE MOUNDS 117
Methods of Disposal of the Dead
Considering the large population that must have lived at Casa
Grande^ it is strange that in all. the writer's excavations so few
human skeletons were found. There is evidence of two kinds of
burial, inhumation in houses and moimds, and cremation, an in-
stance of which was discovered not far from the north wall of
Compoimd B. ^
Whether or not this difference in the manner of disposal of the
dead was due to the rank of the deceased is not clearly evident, but
the nature of the objects buried with a skeleton in Clan-house 1
would seem to indicate the grave of a priest. Skeletons unaccom-
panied by mortuary objects were found in the plazas of Compound A
and in rooms of the southwest angle, but whether these are ancient
or modem is not positively known.
The absence, so far as known, of evidences of cremation from the
cemeteries of the Little Colorado region, including those of ZufLi; and
of Sikyatki, Awatobi, and other Hopi ruins, has been used as an argu-
ment against associating the former inhabitants of these pueblos with
the Hohokam of the Gila-Salt Basin. Moreover, the Pima do not
bum their dead, nor have they done so in historic times. It may
be said in reply to this objection that the Hohokam inhumated
as well as cremated, thus furnishing a double precedent for their
descendants. Moreover, there is good evidence that cremation was
practiced in the eastern and northern Pueblo region, at Mesa
Verde for instance. According to Castaiieda, the Cibolans' binned
their dead.
The human bodies buried in the earth at Casa Grande were laid at
full length, no remains of an inhumated body in a flexed position hav-
ing been found. It is usual to find in pueblos and cUff-dwellings '
skeletons buried in both ways. The manner of interment may have
had in some cases an esoteric meaning, but in most instances it had
no special significance.
Several theories have been suggested to account for burial in the
contracted position. It has been asserted by some authorities that
the corpse was so disposed to represent the embryonic position.
According to a second theory the body was deposited in the squat-
ting position as suggestive of a state of rest.
1 It would appear that a people who burned their dead did not believe in a resurrection of the body,
and the same may be true of those who buried their dead. The placing of offerings in the grave indi-
cates faith in the continuation of life, but does not prove, of course, belief in immortality. The practice
of burning the dead, which was widespread in the Southwest in prehistoric times, was abandoned when
the teachings of the missionaries were followed.
> Cibola is identified by the best authorities as ancient Zufil, but no evidence of cremation has yet
been found in Zufil ruins.
s A cliff-dwelling is practically a pueblo built in a cave, and what is true of one probably holds true for
the other, with slight modification.
120
CASA GRANDE, ABIZOKA
[■TH. ANll. 2H
National
MiMflnm
number
155005
Bureaa
ofEth
nolocy
numoer
602
eo3
eo4
606
606
607
608
609
610
611
612
613
614
615
616
617
618
619
620
621
622
623
624
625
626
627
628
Artide
Pottery toy (mountain goat)
Adobe
Small shells
Small shells
Small shells (Conus)
Small shells (cut and perforated)
Small shells, beads, and pendants
Bone awls
Bone fragments
Chalk, obsidian chips, and brown adobe
Charred wood, 2 nuts, and a corpoob .
Charred textiles, cloth
Wooden-joist fragments
•
Reed
Stone axes
Pounding-stone and fragment
Stone pestles
Stone mullers
Stone hammers
Stone mullers, flat
Stone mortar, flat
Stone mortar
Stone, polished
Stone hoes or chopping knives
Limratone ornament
Small stone vessel
Stone arrowheads
Num-
ber of
speci-
mens
1
2
liOt.
Lot.
Lot.
Lot.
Lot.
3
6
Lot.
4
2
3
1
7
2
2
4
0
6
1
1
1
2
1
1
2
Remarks
Dark brown.
Lumps; 1 showing impression of
cloth, the other of a human foot.
For use as pendantBL
1 string and 2 tregmeiita.
Partly charred.
3, 6, and 9 inches long; 4 inches diam-
eter.
12 inches long.
And 3 broken, grooved.
Of sandstone, with rlng-«hape handle.
One 12| inches long, 1) inches diam-
eter; one 9} inohes long, 1} inches
diameter; also a fragment.
1 pitted.
6 broken.
6} by 12 inches; 2 inches thick.
13 by 22 Inches; 6 inches thick.
22 Inohes long; 6§ inches diameter
restored.
Carved, fragmentary.
Serpent carved on the outside.
1 of obsidian, very small, and 1 of
flint; also a broken specimen.
PiNCKLEY Collection
Mr. Frank Pinckley, the present custodian of Casa Grande, has
made a valuable collection, now installed at the ruin» which can be
inspected by visitors.*
It is to be hoped that a museum for Casa Grande antiquities may
be erected 1 ter near the ruin and that in it may be placed not only
all specime s gathered from the reservation and its neighborhood,
but also such books, maps, and other materials as pertain to the
ruin, in order to increase the educational value of this example of the
culture of the former people of the Gila Valley.
> The writer has seen In private hands one or two specimens which their owners claim were found at Casa
Grande. In view of the fact that there is doubt as to the provenance of some of these objects, and as
they are in no way exceptional, it is thought best not to include a description of them In this report.
N HUMAN FOHM FBOG-SHAPED
STONE IDOLS
TWENTY-eiOHTH ANNUAL REPOBT PLATE
COILED SERPENT (So. 25167H) UNKNOWN ANIMAL
BIRD-8HAPE0- FRONT (N"- i>l*56)
IIRD-SHAPED-SIDE ( No. 2r.H.W)
STONE IDOLS
FiUKMl MINOR ANTIQUITIES 121
Fewkes Coi^lection
stone idols
Several small stone idols (pis. 47, 48) * were found during the exca-
vation and repair of Casa Grande, among which are represented a
human being, a lizard, and a bird. These objects are as a rule rudely
made and exhibit no traces of pigment. As most of them were found
in a shrine, we may suppose they were used ceremonially. The
sculpturing of these objects does not indicate a high degree of art.
The best image is made of diorite, evidently taken from an arroyo
or a river bed. It is instructive to note that the shrine in which
the images were found was situated within a compound and was not
extra-mural.
Human figure. — This idol (pi. 47) evidently represents a female.
The carving is very rude; the arms and legs are closely approximated
to the body, the former in low relief, the latter indicated by slight
ridges. The posture of the lower part of the body would seem to
indicate that it was the intention to represent the figure in a sitting
position. There is no mouth; a low ridge indicates the position of
the nose, at right angles to one end of which are scratches show-
ing the position of the eyes. There are no eyebrows. The surface of
the idol is smooth, and it evidently was made from a river stone,
which was but slightly worked.
Reptile. — It is impossible to identify the genus of reptile or batra-
chian intended to be represented in plate 47, which is suggestive of
some tailed species, possibly a turtle or a lizard. The amount of
working in the case of this specimen is somewhat greater than in
that of the human figure. The rear and fore legs are drawn to the
sides of the somewhat inflated body, suggesting the attitude of a
frog. The head is slightly fractured. The top of the body is occu-
pied by an elliptical depression, ' in which are traces of red pigment.
Bird. — One of the most interesting stone idols in the Casa Grande
collection, found in a shrine of Compound B with the human and rep-
tilian images, is that representing a bird, shown in the accompanying
illustration (pi. 48). The identification of this bird is not possible,
but the occurrence of a bird-form image in a Casa Grande shrine is
unusual. No similar stone idol' is known from the Gila-Salt Basin,
and the few bird fetishes from the Little Colorado differ in form
considerably from the Casa Grande specimen.
Mountain sheep. — The idol identified as a mountain sheep (fig. 21)
on account of the large curved horns is of lava roughly fashioned.
The body is quite long, the tail short; the legs appear as stumpy
1 The numbers beneath the illustrations on the plates, beginning with plate 47, correspond to the
U. S. National Museum numbers in the table on pp. 161-179.
2 An idol found in a rutn on the San Pedro by Mr. Childs,of Mammoth, has a similar depression in the
back. This idol resembles a mountain sheep, the horns being well represented. There is a similar stone
idol in the museum of the University of Arizona, at Tucson.
* Several bird fetishes made of shell are known to the writer, but these bear no resemblance to the stone
image above mentioned.
122 CASA OBAJIDB, ASIZOSA (■ra.ui.SS
appendftges. In other collections from the Gila-Salt region are sev-
eral idolfl in the form of mountain sheep, a fact which leada to the
belief that this animal figured conspicuously in the myths and rituals
of the inliabitants of Casa Grande.
Serpent. — One of the most remarkable stone idols from Casa Grande
is a spiral specimen (pi. 48) representing two snakes twisted together.
The heads of the reptiles are obscurely shown;' cross lines on the
boily indicate the markings or the scales. It has been supposed that
this oliject is a fetish. The form, which is rare in Arizona, suggests
serpent images from Mexico.
Among many carved shell objects seen in collections from the Gila
Valley are several representing serpents, su^esting that the serpent
assumed an important place among Casa Grande fetishes.
UvUnown amTnoi.— This object (pi. 48), while bearing little resem-
blance to an animal, was evidently fasluoned with care for a purpose,
and suggests certain animal fetishes found among the Pueblo Indians.
The image is of lava, has a rough surface, and is unique in the col-
lection.'
Fiu. 11. BtocB Imtjc ol mouQUlo sbaep.
STONE IMPLEMENTS
A fairly large number of stone implements was found at Casa
Grande, tlie section near Clan-house 1 being especially rich in such
objects. The specimens (pis. 49-71) consist of axes, hammers,
mauls, perforated stones, paint grinders, mortars, com grinders,
sinkers, disks, beads, ceremonial stones, polishers, crystals, and
otlier cult objects. Considering the extent of the excavations at
Casa Grande, a greater number of stone objects was expected. The
implements range in hardness of material from diorite to friable
saiulstone. \Miile most of the implements are smoothly polished,
several are rough and unfinished, showing marks of chipping com*
bined with i>oUshing. Several stone implements were picked up on
< Amanf lh» InlOtBUnc iptdmrns from Cast OruKle rNwded In MlndelMI'stlst Is ■"snuU stone vesiel
wllli**<rp<iat<w«lalillieoul3l<le." Tbf inJlMliHt¥frrTv<llhb9pMlmrata"llt^'Tkbtets.">ilmUBr
([■cliwD hivlni bno ncordrd Irom thr Tonlo Btsln.
• As K nil* UiK* tn mora ol Um* Bsurtnu In tiiU Vill«; ruiua Ihin Id otber p1*ca In Aiiiooa wben Uw
I
t>.P%*; '-f »Wt»r>%
GROOVED STONE AXES
MINOK ANnQUITIES
123
the surface, but the majority were found promiscuously during the
excavations, or came from gravee, evidently having been deposited as
ofTarings with the dead. Several were found on the floors of rooms
in the compound.
The ancient inhabitants of Casa Grande were adept in the manufac-
ture of cutting implements, which are made of very hard stone. The
favorite stone for mortars and meal grinders was a volcanic rook of
close texture which is very abundant in the hills not far from the ruins.
As a rule the stones from wluch implements were made came from
the river bed.'
Axes. — Most of the axes (pis. 49-55; also figs. 22-27) are grooved
on two faces and one edge, the groove not extending over the
remuning edge, a form typical of Gila Valley axes. In one or two
Fio. 33. Shma u
examples (pi. 55 and fig. 23) the groove completely surrounds the ax,
and there are specimens without a groove, its place being taken by
a nick in one edge. One end of these axes is sharp, the other blunt.
There are also several double-edged examples; these are finely made,
their edges being curved and showing httle evidence of use. Each
of two specimens has a groove on one side as if for the insertion of
a wedge to strengthen the hafting.
The beautiful double-bladed axes shown in plate 51 are grooved
on the faces and one edge. Specimen a is not grooved on the sides
but has a notch on one edge. This ax is one of the most beautiful
in the collection. Specimen b has a deep groove with a ridge on each
I The modHn Pima m&ka uh of Uie UMlent slime Implemoits. OikUdi it «ul
thiD to muu&ctura them. Tbdr alone metitM and matxia. or gilading
procun tbese Irom ruins
a. are Wmt than tba
Irom the Hohokam.
124 CASA GBATTDE, ABIZONA [in. Ufv. 38
Bide and resembles specimens from northern Arizona. Another
partially grooved ax is shown in figure 24. The specimen figured as
c of plate 51 shows the effects of fire, being much splintered. This
was once a fine implement, sharpened at each end, with a shallow
groove on two sides and the rim. Specimen d is likewise a doublc-
bladed ax but is not so finely polished as that laet mentioned. The
specimen shown in figure 25 was found in the grave of the chief of
Clan-house 1. With one exception none of the axes show marked
ridges above or below the groove, a feature common to grooved axee
from Hopi ruins.
Plate 52 shows four typical stone axes which
differsomewhat inform; tJie differences are more
in the shape of the poll and in the cross-section,
the groove for hafting being nearly uniform in
all. Specimen a is somewhat pointed and b
is smoother at the edge than on the sides; c is
deeply grooved while in d the groove is shallow.
The two specimens figured in plate 53 are ex-
ceptional, one side being flat and the opposite
side convex ; the groove is confined to the latter
side, extending in b from a point near one
edge to the other edge.
One of the axes (pi. 54, b) was too large, per-
haps, for use as such; its surface shows marks
of pecking, and in some places the original
smooth surface. Possibly this is an unfinished
implement. Specimens a and d in this plate
are almost circular in section, while c is nearly
rectangular.
The remarkable ax figured in plate 55 viewed
from the side and the front, is of unusual char-
acter, although in general form it is not very
different from the typical Casa Grande ax.
One face and a part of the groove show de-
cided roughness, ascribed to secondary chipping.
Grooved hammers or mania. — There are in the collection many
grooved stone hammers more or less battered on their, ends by long
and hard usage. Most of them are regular in shape. Some of the
hammers were originally axes which, becoming greatly worn or broken
at the edge, were adapted 'for use in pounding. Sevttral hammers
are illustrated in plates 56 and 57 and figures 26 and 27.
Some of the hammers are circular in cross section, elongate,
grooved on three sides and convex at the ends, or are dumb-
bell shaped, short and stumpy. Others are almost square in
cross section. The two ends may be of equaJ size, with the groove
STONE HAMMERS
t
u]
UINOB ANTIQUITIES
125
midway in Uie lengtli, or of unequal dimensions, with the groove
nearer one end. A typical hammer of dumb-bell sliape is shown in
figure 27. The hammers shown in plate 57, a, b, are very much worn
at what was formerly the sharp edge, and the polls are very flat; c is
much worn down on both ends; d is witliout groove; and in e the
groove is inconspicuous.
Problemaiical implements. — Under this head may be mentioned the
long, thin, flat stones (as pi. 58, d), some of which are sharp at one ex-
tremity and blunt at the otlier. One of these specimens (b) is broad
at one end and tapers uniformly, while another (c) is shovel-shaped.
In this category may be mentioned a broken implement having
two deep marginal incisions, which, periiaps, should more strictly be
assigned to objects of the hoe
or shovel type. This unique
specimen (pi. 58, a) ,wliich b
of slate, has incised mark-
ings on the flat face.
Of the specimens figured
in plate 59 it is probable that
o and d represent pestlos; b,
f, and i, grinding stones ; and g
and A, pocking stones. The
purposes for which c and e
were used are not clear.
Oneofthcobjccts{c)shown
in plate 66 probably served
as a paint-grinder, while d
and e of the same plate may
h»Te been used as pecking
stones.
Plummetrlike object. — A remarkable stone object (fig. 28) from Casa
Grande, found deeply buried in tlie earth covering Compound B, is a
cylinder provided with an e^'elet in the top, like a plumb-bob, the
whole resembling in form an object of unknown use from Mexico.
On account of '\\a form it has been suggested that- this object was
employed as a plummet by tlie ancient masons. Although the valid-
ity of this theory is regarded as very doubtful, no suggestion is here
made of the meaning of this most exceptional specimen.
Tablets. — Certain flat rectangular stones, called tablets, most of
wliich are of slate, have smooth margins; the ornamentation of
their borders varies considerably, in some specimens taking the form
of parallel lines arranged in clusters. One of these tablets (pi. 60, d)
is typical of many found in ruins in the Gila-Salt Valley, and suggests
a pigment slab.'
F:i).2^ Oroi>veddaubtfr«dgaa:i
126 C&&& GRAXDE. ABIZ05A ltsm.An.»
ArTtM<-tlttft polidttn. — SeTcrml gmoTcd stMies. identified as arrow-
shaft polisbefs. two of wttirb (pi. 61 • are fine qtecimeos. were di^
up at Casa Grande. The best speomen has a douUe groove and a
surface Mnamented with mrised lines. Anotho-, of equally fine
wxirkmaisship. is smaller and coosidermUy tvoken. Both ate made
of a black siooe. the surface of which is highly polished, cspeciallr
aloD|: the gn>oT«&. One (rf the specimens is oral in shape : the other
rectai^rular.
Gri^inf tto'^t. — ^Slabs and disks used for griodisf purposes are
fair^T commoQ at fasa Grande. Ti.e sereral specimens f<^'UD(l vary
in size, shape, arnl other characters. Thev are circjJar i>r rectan-
^jlaT, with or wiiLout a
mar^rmal |!raoTe: manv are
provided wi; h a kn^h. These
objects pL 6:^ are or>iinarUy
made of lava i,.r oii-er Lard
rwk. It is m.i clearir known
wheir.er tlev serreo for prind-
ir^ f':^2ie-E;s., sedls, i«r other
suKijancp*^ O.-ni grindir^
was artrocipiisikeii by nif^iks of
lanrer in:p>meEis. as n^eiaics
and ma:3i>~. many forms of
whxh are fomiJ in liie ccl-
leciAMi?,
The Tae\Mes pi. 6->. /' are
in DO respect exceptk-nal.' As
a role these are made of lava;
ibcy are fiat orci^Dcave onone
sade, many are iwajjh on the
^" opprtaie surface, aad some
haTemar^nnalri.iires. The mano^ or hanJ sJones pi. 63 .vaiyinsaxe
and shape aswellasinihe maienalof which they aie maoe. Aoom-
n»--n f>nn is flat on one siiJe. r>.»-EaeJ on the oppi«~i;e. wiih ec^es and
eojs rvjnjfd. The rrintiinp surfaces ot others have two pilars at
aaanricfv>nniiiirari.li:eaJ.ini:ihe miiii^. None of the me^aies were
f-'unj «■! in Ivixes as amooir cli^-dwcilirxcs ar.J pjfV'i.i>, ar.d it is
pr.-''r»t'r-> th« w*wn ^»e^l they were simp'y pJaceiJ on tije tl>ir. the
w,.-.:i«-a fci>«:ini:»V^ enipiovevl in |~.t"; "-i:ii:-
Si-'Ues'jjxviaspsir.T irrin.icTS pls.64,65:f7.*:aridfiiSvi^^-5.'"' .many
sOi-wiiii: ira,-r< i-f pii:m<in vn thiir si;rf»oes, vajr in siie and shape
s
}
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGV TWENTV-EIQHTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE »
MORTARS AND PESTLE
wmwmj UINOB ANTIQUITIES 127
from a small slab contunlng a slight superficial depression to a well-
formed mortar. Pigments ground in tliese utensils were used for
decoration of face and body and for omameDtatton of pottery.
To the surface of one of the
best of these grinders still adhere
stains of green paint that had
been ground on it. This (pi. 60,
a), the most interesting perhaps
of all the paint grinders, is made
of hard blackish stone ; it is rec-
tangular, about 10 inches long.
There is a slight symmetrical de-
pression on one side ; the rim is
decorated. With this specimen
was found a finely made pestle
(fig. 30) , also of hard stone, with
smooth finish, its grinding end
slightly flaring. Both these ob-
jects were exliumed from the
burial cyst of Clan-house 1, ac-
companying the skeleton of the
priest, or possibly chief. The fin-
ger bones of the right hand, when
found,s till held fragmentsof paint,
and there were arrow-points and
spear-points in the left hand.
Plate 62, a, shows one of these rubbers of oval shape with a knob-
like projection at one side. In h the rubbing part is more massive,
while the handle, which is not very prominent, occupies a similar
position. In e the handle is more elevated and the
rubbing portion of the stone relatively smaller,
while in d the handle is greatly depressed and the
rubbing part elongate. Specimen e represents a fine
rubbing stone belonging to the series having the
knobs between the center and the periphery, while
in / the handle is centrally placed and the body is
circular and thin; the latter is one of the best made
of all the rubbing atones in the collection. In g the
diameter of the knob is only slightly less than that
of the body of the grinder.
Mortars. — Hiese range in form from circular to
rectangular; some are deeply concave, some have nearly a plane sur-
face. One of the simplest specimens (pi. 64, c) is of irregular shape,
concave on one side; d is almost rectangular, considerably longer
FlQ. n. Domb-bell shaped it
128 CASA GBANDE, ABIZONA IBIH. iKii. 28
thsn broad; a and & show no sign of concavity; and e is barely more
than a flat stone.
From t]ie simple mortars last mentioned we pass to those more
elaborately made, shown in plate 60. Specimen b is rectangul^, with
a thin border surrounding a shallow smooth concavity. The rim of
the depression is raised at each end, differing in this respect fromf,
which is practically a metate. Specimen e is much longer than
broad, the depression resembling a groove rather than a concavity,
while figure d in addition to a raised rim has bars across the rim,
approximating in form a tablet (p. 125). Specimen c resembles a
miniature metate but may be a concretion of symmetrical shape.
FlQ. 29. Tool (Or rubbing or (irindlng pigment.
The two mort&t^ shown in plate 65 are typical, the one (a) oval, the
other (&) circular in shape. They were doubtless used as at present
among the Pima in bruising mesquite beans and in crushing seeds.
The cavity was either worn out by constant use or it may have
been worked out with pecking stones. The lava of which these mor-
tars were made, both a soft porous kind and a liard compact va'iety,
is found in the mountains near Casa Grande.
Although there are in the collection no wooden pestles to use witli
these mortars, the native ironwood was well adapted for the purpose
and no doubt was so employed.
'1
F AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
TWENTV-GIOHTH ANNUAL REPORT I
PROBLEMATICAL STONE OBJECTS
I
nwKBS] MINOB ANTIQUITIES 129
Perforated stones. — -Among the problematic stones from Casa
Grande are several specimens (pi. 66, a, h), measuring from a few
inches to 2 feet in length, with a large per-
foration near the margin. None of these
stones are polished, and their rough exterior
shows no signs of decoration. The use to which
these objects were put is unknown, but their
presence in all collections from the Gila and
Salt Hirer ruins indicates that they were im-
portant.'
An irregulw stone slab having an ovoid
perforation (%. 31) may be merely a dis-
carded paint or seed grinder, the hole through no. so. paint p«stia trom
it being the result of wear. The suggestion boHaUa amiex room «, cim-
that it was used in a ball game as the per-
lorated stone through which a stone ball was thrown is hardly tenable.
Perforated disks of stone (fig. 32) are among the rare objects found
at Casa Grande, These have the same general shape as the perforated
pottery disks which are common throughout the Pueblo area. It is
supposed that these objects were employed in games, but some speci-
mens were undoubtedly used as spindle whorls. The larger stone
disks, of which there are several in the collection, varying in size and
degree of finish, were probably used as covers for mortuary jars.
1 It bM bMn lUKBiud that Uuee obfacts wen bung from ralren ol houan or tram tmn or b«ub«s and '
MTFcd u loiiiuUtiE stones, or toaei, to csll ths poople logetbo, but tbe IBcI that manr ot tbem an ol >oR
Domvaoiuuit lav> would seem to preAude tbelr employment tor such pufposs.
130 CASA OBANDE, AEIZONA !■«. is«.M
A ring-shaped stone was probably used in a game. It is not unlike
one described and figured by Doctor Russell.' Of the use of such
stones he is doubtful, but says:
A few ringH of porous lava have been found about the niiiu which have been
called "head rings" because of their reaemblauce to the ordinary head rings of cloth
or bark in common use among the Pimas. . . . However, m most of them are too
email and the material 18 extremely unmit«d for such a putpoee, it ia much more proba-
ble th^ they were employed in some game with which the pre«ent race is unacquainted.
Medicine stoTtes.—The Arizona Indians, especially the Hopi, make
use of a variety of stones in their medicine ceremonies; these differ
in shape, color, and degree of hardness, properties considered im-
portant by the priests. To this category belong rock crystals, botry-
oidal stones employed in treating disease or by sun priesf« in rain
ceremonies. Any strangely formed stoae, as agatized wood, a fossfl
or concretion, a fragment of lava, was regarded, no doubt, by the
priests of Casa Grande as efficacious in
aacred rites.
Crystals of quartz (pi. 67, a) are prized
by many of the Southwestern tribes for
medicinal purposes. These crystals are
found in several ruins la northern Ari-
zona, where they had, no doubt, the same
significance. Numerous quartz crystals
were found at Casa Grande. It is
known from legends of the Pima as well
pK,.aa. PtrtontedMoiadbknMlta ^ ^°™ Pueblo traditions that such
g«ni«. crystals were employed in the jiractice
of medicine; specimens have been found in fetish bags of the dead.
Piffments. — From their constant use in ceremonial proceedings,
stones and minerals suitable for pigments are highly prized by all
Indians. The same, pigments were employed by the natives of Casa
Grande as by the northern Pueblos. The most common of these
appear to have been various oxides of iron, carbonates of copper,
black shale, and gypsum. These were prepared by grinding, in
much the same way as the Pueblos prepare their paint materials.
A medicine outfit containing several difTerent pigments was found
with what is herein described as a priest's skeleton, in a room in the
northwest comer of Compound A.
Arrow-heads aiid spear-pmnta. — The author has seen a considerable
collection of fine arrow-heads picked up at Casa Grande. These
objects differ in no respect from other arrow-heads found tliroughout
the Southwest. Most of them were gatliered from the surface of the
ground and may have been dropped by those who built the Casa
Grande compounds or by other people.
• Taimtrtith Ann. Ktp. But. Amtr. Btlmat.,p. IH.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN
TWENTV-EIOHTH ANNUAL BEPORT PLATE Si
(No. i52168)
(No. vaxii)
6
f
MISCELLANEOUS OBJECTS
^-'^
HWKMl MINOR ANTIQUITIBS 131
Mite^aneous Hones. — Several fragments of obsidian and a few
flint flakee, wster-wom pebbles, squared pieces of lava of unknown
use, baking stones, an object shaped like a whetstone, and various non-
descript objects (pi. 67, h, d) are contained in the collection. Asingle
specimen of knife or projectile point (flg. 33) was found in the ruins.
Many specimens of fossil wood were taken from one of the shrinee,
and concretions were uncovered from various places in the compounds.
Among other problematic specimens are elongate or cubical objects
of coarse sandstone, a hemispherical object of pumice, and a small
pointed stone used perhaps as a drill.
Fragments of artificially worked mica, asbestos, galena, and chal-
cedony are also in the collection from Casa Grande. Like the ancient
people who inhabited the northern pueblos, those of the south prized
petrified wood, obsidian, any stone of grotesque shape, fossils, and
water-worn pebbles. Many of these specimens must have been
brought a considerable distance, as they are different from stones
found in the inmiediate vicinity.
2>iaka and hdUs.Stone disks (pU. 68; 69, (0«nd balls (pi. 69, a, e, and
fig. 34) of various sizes were found in consider-
able numbers. These were artificiaUy worked
and are supposed to have belonged to gaming
paraphernalia, but they may have been used as
weapons. In the latter case, it may besupposed
they were fastened to handles with thongs of
skin. These balls should not be confounded
with the small smooth pebbles used for polish-
ing pottery or with ceremonial stones used in
making medicine. There are several stones
similar to those used in the Hopi foot race,
" kicking the stone," in the collection.
Beads and peiidants. — Several stone beads no. w. Knits or pcoisctua
and pendants (figs. 35-38) of various sizes and f"""'-
shapes are contained in the collection. Some are spherical, many
are perforated cylinders, while others consist of fragments of tur^
quoise perforated for use as ear or neck ornaments.
A piece of carved red jasper (fig. 37), evidently an ornament, may
be appropriately mentioned in this place. Fragments of mica were
probably used for a similar purpose. Little squares of turquoise
show evidences of having once been portions of mosaic, like the mosaic
frog from Chaves Pass, figured elsewhere.' Fig. 38 is a tooth-shaped
stone ornament.
Shovds and hoes. — There is a number of fiat implements of slate
(pis. 70, 71), sharp on one edge and blunt on the opposite, identified
132 CASA GRANDE, ARIZONA (vTU. ahh. 2S
as shovels and hoea. Somewereprobablyattached to handles (fig. 39),
or even held directly in ttie hand.' One or more of (Jiese are shaped
like spades, an extension on one side serving' for attachment of a
handle; others are elongate, circular, or semicircular.
Slate appears to have been the material most commonly employed
in the manufacture of these implements, obsidian being better
adapted for cutting tools.
Fio. S4. SUM bolls.
Several lioe-Uke implements, especially those without indication of
attachment, are cliipped along the sharp edge, the opposite edge be-
ing tliicker and smooth. These (pi. 71) are more like scrapers than
shoveb, and may have been used in dressing skins.
TWENTY-eiQMTM A
MORTUARY URN (No. IM&a)
(No. 251677) (No. aaiff*) (No, 254828)
TRIPOO DISH BIRD-SHAPED VASE SPOOL-SHAPED OBJECT
POTTERY
H ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 73
Th
obi
ftlt
illu
ter
Bha
of
I
UDc
1
the
MEOICINE'BOWL (N0.3SIS8I)
POTTERY
VBwns]
MINOR ANTIQUITIES
133
POTTERY
Pottery objects of almost every form known among Pueblos,
including food basins or bowls (pi. 73), vases, ollas, ladles, spoons,
and cups, are found in Gila Valley ruins. The Casa Grande pottery
resembles that found in the other ruins of this region. Unfortunately
it consists for the greater part of fragments, only a few pieces being
Fio. 35. Stone bead.
Fig. 36. Stone ornament.
Fio. 37. Ornament of
jasper.
entire when found. Some of the more fragile bowls show signs
of repair, an indication that cracked vessels were not immediately
discarded.
Specialized Forms
Spool-shaped object — This specimen (pi. 72) is different from any
other in the collection; the use to which it was put is not known.
Medicine'howl.^-Tlim bowl, illustrated in plate 73, is cylindrical
except for the slightly flaring rim. In the middle of the upper sur-
face is a circular depression, between the raised rim of which an^ the
outer margin of the lip the surface is concave. Any decoration this
surface may once have borne has become obliterated.
The ornamentation of the sides, now more or less
obscure, consists of a series of vertical parallel lines
alternating with crooks, or terraces , as shown in the
illustration. The rim of this bowl is broken in places,
a result no doubt of hard usage since it was dis-
carded. One form of these bowb resembles a po1>-
tery rest, the depression consisting merely of a
shallow concavity in the surface. Several examples
of these vessels, made of undecorated ware, were found (see spool-
shaped object, pi. 72).
Spoon-shaped scoops. — Several pieces of pottery have the form of
scoops (pi. 72) ; the handles are formed by prolongation of the rim.
Dishes. — There are several small shallow dishes (pi. 72 and fig. 40),
undecorated, each mounted on three stumpy legs.
Water jar. — ^In a comer of a room in Compound A, directly under
the old stage road from Casa Grande to Florence, was found a very
large jar, or oUa. Hundreds of people have driven over the spot
beneath which this jar was buried. The object was left in place,
being too large to move without breaking.
Fio. 3& Tooth-shaped
pendant of stone.
134 CASA GRAVdE, ABIZONA [■TH.AHH.2a
Mortuary urn- — The specimen here illustrated (pi. 72) is of typical
form. A Btone disk luted in place with adobe served as a cover.
In addition to those above mentioned there are various earthenware
objects in the collection. Among these is a vessel with slanting sides,
a flat bottom, and a hooked handle. Another specimen (pi. 73) is a
cup provided with a handle looped on one side. This cup bears
geometric ornamentation in the form of triangular designs in red.
Iklost of the vessels when found were
empty. One contained a number of shells,
however, while in a few were fragmente
of paints of various colors.
The presence in the collection of several
fragments of potteiy affords evidence that
relief figures and effigy vases were not rare •
at Casa Grande. One of the best of these
ia a fragment (fig. 41) from a bowl on which
a face is painted; it resembles a bird's head,
with the beak in relief. The specimen as
restored by a Pima potter is shown in
figure 42.
Bird vase, — A vase (pi. 72) having the
form of a bird, with rudimentary wings
and broken tail represented in relief, sug-
gests similar pottery from the Little
O>lorado ruins and vases from Sikyatki,
elsewhere figured. Its small size would
seem to indicate that it served as a recep-
tacle for salt, sacred meal, or other sub-
stance. This is the only receptacle of this
form that was found in the course of the
excavations at Casa Grande, but similar
no 38. stiorei with imndbi vessels are repotted from several other
ruins in the Gila r^on. In this vase only
the rudiments of the wings appear as low ridges on the opposite sides,
the avian form being greatly conventionalized. There is no sign of
paint OQ the surface, but it is probable that the wings at least were
once decorated with parallel lines, as is customary in bird effigy vases
from the Little Colorado.*
Images of animals. — One or two small clay effigies of ftnimala
(pi. 67, c) were found at Casa Grande. These are rudely made,
their forms not being sufficiently well modeled to admit of identi-
fication.
iSMMd ^nn. Rtp. Bvr. Ama. £(llnaf.,p. 6&
Fio. n. TbrtB-lBreed enrtlienwBrB d[
nwKM] MINOR ANTIQUITIES 135
It seems to hare been a universal custom among the people of the
Gila compounds, as among those elsewhere in the Southwest, to make
atllmal images for
sacred or secular
use. Theseobjects
may have served
at times as play-
things but often
may have had a
ceremonial use, for
it is probable that
they were manu-
factured to deposit
in shrines, thus
serving as prayers
for the increase of
the animals they represent, just as a few years ago (possibly to-ilay
also) the Hopi deposited in the comer of their sheep corrals clay imi-
tations of sheep and in certain shrines wooden eagle eggs.* These
effigies may be classed as prayer objects, to the use of which in Hopi
ceremonies attention has been drawn else-
where.
The prayer objects are not regarded as
symbohc representations of sacrificial offer-
ings (as similar figurines are interpreted by
some authors], but as material representa-
tions of animals desired. The sheep efiigy
of the modem Hopi is not a sacrifice to the
god of growth, but a prayer symbol employed
to secure increase of fiocks. The painted
eagle egg has a corresponding significance.
Tta. 41. Pottery fiiBinent be«i. Pipe Or dovd-Uowtr. — TheCasa Grande peo-
ing bird s head. pj^ used in smoluDg perforated tubes of clay or
stone resembling pipes. The cane cigarette also was 'commonly used,
as shown by rejected canes found in great abundance in some of the
rooms of Compound A. A laige number of these canes are found
also in shrines or other sacred places of the Hohokam, where they
were placed by the ancients.*
A broken pipe made of clay was excavated at Casa Grande and
another was found on the ground. The former object has a slight
enlargement of the perforation at one end. Although much of the
stem is missing, there is no doubt that this pipe belongs to the type
1 llauy Glar flRutliica ol^qukdnipcdi luTe been taken Imni miu en the Salt RItct.
■ Tbe ends ol Ibcsa caoM tn lavtrMilf burnt, u l[ alter oat. The caoea vere depoalled In Bbrlnta, lot.
lowing tbe custom whlob atllt bolda In the New Fire and other ceremonlea at Walpl. The aehea made by
mmd An and tboea fnm the aKred pipe are iwt ttqawn to tbe wtnda, but are plaoed li
v'*lK>l iNi* ^tlmrtjAt-lMN* vmrwiy, which U roDsidnr«^ by the best
«uiK\Mttw*i t^> ba* ihi^ t^ivtuslv>rk- f^>nn in the St^uihwst.
Il h».-i bi'^i svt^^;<ft4tfvt tbat thv frknnctit of slooe shown in plate
(tl, \>«(t»U'-uij; • cAvity- wv<ckvvi in lh<^ sitW. is ui uofimshvd pipe, bat
u K s>.^ sl^:^tt> !^«l^ thai i;^ fiiuJ tuartioa ran not be definitelr
I'w-** vi ^^,•\^v- "l^.ss K>ci» «>< sciruu;'^ whort t** b«tw been
!\x\'-\;s>t wv;'\ v-^ j'^* M-.o-^-« M^-(::::Jk:3$ it oc :t* Coioniio
("■it.AV,?, S;* -N v;-vi ■*■»:• '.ifc-i-ii frw.' ;>.# Oili ir.:,> Cec:r»l A::ierica.
s
BUREAU OF AMEAICAN ETHNOLOGY TWeNTV-ElfiHTH ANNUAL R
I, sHowiNQ IMPRESSION OF n
(No. 2o'a95)
IB, SHOWING IMPRESSION OF BASKETWAFtE
CLAY OBJECTS
nwKHl MINOB ANTIQUITIES 137
low ridge and bearing; basketware markings on the surface, made of
course while the clay was soft. Others do not have the peripheral
ridge a;id the rectangular surface markings. In no instance is there
any trace of smoke or evidence that the slabs were used in cooking.
The basketware impressions are not unlike those observed on the
fioors of several rooms, especially the room designated O, east of
Pyramid A in Compound B.
Dboobation op Casa Grande Pottery
As a rule the decoration of Casa Grande pottery partakes of the
simplicity characteristic of ceramic ware found elsewhere in this
region. We miss in it the pictorial element, or representation of life
forms, that is so marked a feature of the pottery of the Little Colorado
Fig. 4S. Spindle wborls.
and of true Hopi or Tusayan (Sikyatki) ware, rectilinear patterns
predominating. It is ahnost impossible to distinguish some of the
geometric designs on Casa Qrande ware from decorations on pottery
found in the cliff-dwellings of northern Arizona and southern Colo-
rado. This is especially true of the gray-and-hlack ware, which is
one of the most ancient and widely distributed varieties in the South-
west. The designs on the pottery from the Gila-Salt drainage have
only a remote likeness to decorations on that from the Casas Grandes
in Chihuahua, although the pottery from ruins on the upper Santa
Cruz, one of the tributaries of the Gila, resembles well-known Mexican
forms. As a whole, however, the ornamentation of the pottery from
Casa Grande may be classed as Mexican rather than Southwestern
notwithstanding many pieces show northern characteristics.
While a characteristic polychrome ware is the most abundant
at Casa Grande, there are found likewise vases of black-and-white'
1 The potlcn of CasB Gmnde had madci tha Important dlsooTwy, unlTenal among cllfl-dmllins and
common In many pueblos, that s smooth lurtacetaD bsaecundbycov«rlDgarDU(tipo( vUta a wblle lUp,
producing vbat, after dacontlon, li oommoul; called black^nd-wtiUe wanu
138 CASA OR&NDE, ABIZONA Ivth-ahs. 28
and of red-and-brown ware; tdso several food-bowls decorated in
white-and-black, or bearing red-and-brown patterns. Moat of the
pieces are of red ware, undecorated. Several scoops are red, lined
with black, resembling pottery from the Little Colorado' ruins.
There is Ukewise a gray ware decorated with black or brown pig-
ment apparently somewhat changed by long burial. Coiled ware
is not as common at Casa Grande as in the chff-dwellings, but rough,
impolished ware is often found.
Many of the geometric figures used in the decoration of Gila pottery
are found also on
the pottery of
other regions in
the Southwest ; the
writer has yet to
find any such fig^
ures pecuhar to
Casa Grande.
There are several
des^s from the
Pueblo region
which are not
found in the Gila
area. This is in-
terpreted to mean
that culture of the
Gila area a.Tocted
that of the Pueblo
region, but was not
affected by it.
The decoration
consists mainly of
FIO.M. Pn(maDtorbuni(cbiytwTtnciiiwaiDd3RiiiiniifHe. terraced and zig-
zag figures, but
broken spirals are also represented. The so-called "line of life," or
broken encircling line, occurs on several fragments.
As mentioned, stepped, or terraced, figures are found on specimens
from the Casa Grande r^on, but are not as numerous as on that
of true pueblo ruins of the San Juan drainage. Comparatively few
fibres are fringed with rows of dots, but short parallrf lines are not
uncommon.
One of the characteristic decorations of pottery found in the ruins
along t)ie Gila and its tributaries is the triangle having two or more
parallel lines extending from one angle, which form generally a contin-
uation of one side. (Figs. 45, 46.) Tlus design is common abo to
pottery from the ruins of dwellings along the Little Colorado, most of
rtWKMj MINOB ANTIQUITIES 139
which were once inliabited by clans from the northern tributaries of
the Gila and the Salt, but is found only sparingly in the northern
Arizona ruins and those of New Mexico and Colorado. Among the
Hopi ruins no example of this ornament was found at Sikyatki and
but one or two at Awatobi.'
The triangle design above described is not commonly found on
the Mesa Verde pottery and is rare in the Rio Grande region. In
the opinion of the writer this may be safely regarded as one of the
symbols (figs, 45, 46, 47) of prehistoric pottery derived from southern
Arizona; it has been identified as head feathers of the quail, and is
found not only on pottery but also on other objects. The outside wall
bowl dcoocmMd vllb tikuitto [Mtern.
of the sarcophagus discovered in Clan-house 1 is decorated with a series
of these triangles having quail-feather decorations in red pigment.
The use of the swastika * in the decoration of prehistoric pottery
is so rare that mention of a single specimen from Casa Grande is
> SIkfBtkl p«tUiT showi no tlgna of Llttls Colmdo InOuam. ■ taut whioli la In hMiDoaf vlth trtbal
liigmi<b, but (ormn COD tMt with caHure at Iha south liBvldiint In AwBtobloanmlcB.u would be riipinted.
Tba PU» (Tobacoa) dan, that onootlTCd atCbxhui mlu, mi}- bare brougbt tram tb* Little Colondo tb«
trtan^ dMl(n above dcKrlbwl. Id the Ktam ooUectkm there ir« one or two iiiac«a oI potter]' with tbii
deDDrMloii,but thelrproveaaocelatndaflnile— althcrCuiyoDdeChcUy 0TTaim.j»a, tiro dMtnot oersmlc
I Thki dedgn, now lo tnt\y und In the dacoratkin of Nantao blankeli, Mvtnnit, and other ot^BcIi,
hai been iMiDd on pottery Irom ndna on the Llttlo Colondo, and v&riant Eoraia oocur at Slkfatkl, but It
■cidom appeal* on difl-houaa potteiy. The old Hopl prtnte do not give a coamlc InterpiMallaa la the
twHtlka.nordo Ihejidentlfrlt a<a"|oadhiiik"irmboL Some of the Pirn* euggeet that It
llM bur cUwi ot the eacla.
140 CA&A GRANDE, ARIZONA [nB.AKK. !S
important. Among all the Indians of the Southwest none surpass
the Pima in the number and variety of the examples of this symbol,
which is especially elaborate on their basketry. It is used on their
pottery also, particularly on specimens made by the Kwahadt
(Quahatika), near Quijotoac'
The single example on their pottery and one or two examples on
fragments of basketry show that the swastika was not unknown
to the Casft Grande people.
One looks in vain on Casa Grande pottery for representations of
the feather symbol of Sikyatki, or the "sky band" with dependent
bird forms highly conventionalized, symbols so common on prehis-
toric Hopi earthenware. Likewise absent are the fine geometric fig-
ures so well represented in the ceramics of ancient Hopiland. While
there is a likeness between the pottery of the Gila drainage and that
of the Little Colorado and the Colorado Plateau, there is only the
Fio. 4S. Trlangla dailgn deoonlliig bowl (uw Dg. K).
most distant resemblance of the life figures of tlie pottery first
named and that of the San Juan and Kio Grande areas.'
The relative predominance of geometric figures in Casa Grande
ceramic decorations allies the ware to that of the San Juan and Rio
Grande drainage rather than to the pottery of the ancient Hopi and
Little Colorado. In the old Hopi ware life forms predominate over
geometric figures, as may be readily seen by an examination of the
> A compulKia of modsm Plnu poElcry with uidant CiH Gnnds mm doa nol reveal ■ T«r; ckoa
racmblance In ■rmboUnn, but the nllectlon of the [ormet li too smBll to atnt aa s basis foi eitenilve
Mudies. Uodem Plnu nan U muked b j Uie presenne ol but [ew llle (Drms, wblle nunr ceoDwUlc decon-
tions (buid«, itnlgbt and curved, uid b numbor of other design*) an used. Tuisoed daaisna, w coaunoD
an Pima pottery, are not uUUied to any coiulderable extent on ail> van.
The KwahadI, a [roup ol Indiana related to the I'linB,llYlugHulh of CHaOnuide,aBeiii to have {sTCBTved
(0 agreatsi extent than the Pima or the Papago the ancient polUn' ait, although the Pima an good potun.
Enhadt pottery bast Soe luster. which is not found on the Casa Onode n»,and bean cbsracteriatlc
lymboUc deconlions. The deslgoa on thts pottery dlBerndkaliy ImnttwiyiDboaon Pima potteiy and
baaketry, and oR«D auggeat symlMla on aodent veotls from Can dnnde, o
1 Although we might predict that the pottery o( the Verde and Tonio Baabis clowly resemble thQt
of the OIU, no auertlon u to the nseiDblanCQ can yet be made, as then an no cdllectloni ol pottery
from theaa liver valleys.
rewKBR] MINOB ANTIQUItlES 141
beautiful bowls and vases from Sikyatki, Awatobi, and ShongopOTi.
Life motives predominate also in pottery from tlie Little Colorado
r^ion, but they are rare in cliflF-dweilera' pottery, where the propor-
tions are reversed.'
There is every reason to believe that all the Casa Grande pottery
and the decoration connected therewith are the work of women,
and the industry still survives in feminine hands among both Pueblos
and Pima. In a pueblo such as Sikyatki, where symbolism in pr&-
historic times reached highest development in the Southwest, we find
a great predominance of bird designs, but in the Casa Grande pot-
tery there are only one or two such patterns.
A number of the more striking specimens of pottery from the
Pueblo Viejo Valley are figured in color elsewhere. ' Stray specimens
of Gila Valley ware are found
in the ruins along the Little
Colorado, where, however, it b
not indigenous. Many frag-
ments, most of which bear geo-
metric designs, were brought
to light at Casa Grande, but no
life forms with exception of a
bird's head in rehef on a small
fragment (fig. 41).
The designs on the Pueblo
and other Southwestern pot-
tery, ancient and modem, are
decidedly ideahstic rather than
realistic. The Ufe forms rarely
represent real ammals but """■ i>"ie» <"«»»"»« ™»
rather those which the native potters conceived of as existing. The
varied pictures of hving beings which, as already stated, constitute
so important a feature in the decoration of Sikyatki pottery, were
not copied from nature but are highly conventionalized,^
Although some of the common symbols, as the rain cloud, which
can be recognized without difficulty among the Pueblos, have not
yet been traced among Casa Grande decorations, it may be that
water symbols of another kind were regarded as more important.
The fields of tlie Casa Grande farmers were watered by irrigation, and
I to modeTD i'uebla poller)- ]lt« torma plaf ■ coDspicuoua iMe. as may bs xmn bj eiuniiutioD of
modern EerM or Tewn wnre.
> la itd Aim. Sep. Bar. Avur. Ethnol.
' Tbg 97mbob on Sikyatki cuBmlii obfecti mn ODdoubtMlly made by women uut It Eg probable that
thry imdiiisloiid Uudr dpilflcuKe. Than tymbols aOord a goal Idea ol woman's pnihlnoila art In one
locajlt]' ol our SouNivest and sbow tlial It ta oonTantlonal In tba blgtuat degraa lad laigaly mTtbolofio,
two featuiw tbai chamoIsriiB the art pnxlucla ol other Pueblos.
142 CASA GBANDEi ABIZONA [eth.akh.28
although rain ceremonies were no doubt conunon, the river cult may
have been more prominent. There are reasons to believe that the
plumed serpent was to them symbolic of the Gila and it is possible
that zigzag figures employed ui decorating their pottery have refer-
ence to this animal.^
BEAMS AND BAFTEB8
The roof of a section (room H) of the Northeast Building having
fallen in almost entire, the writer was enabled to ascertain the man-
ner in which roofs and floors were constructed. The construction of
the former seems to have been not unlike that of Pueblo houses.
On the rafters, transversely, were placed eedar poles over which were
laid sticks supporting clay firmly stamped down. Several fragments
of adobe from roofs and floors, showing impressions of logs, branches,
and reeds, are in the collection brought back to Washington. Many
of the poles and rafters in this building show the effects of fire, being
superficially charred or, in some cases, converted completely into
charcoal.
While the roof was supported for the greater part by beams laid
from wall to wall, it was strengthened by perpendicular logs set in
the floors of the rooms. The holes in which these supports were
placed were found to be filled with decayed cemnants of the logs.
Some of these logs must have been dragged from the forests, on dis-
tant hills.
CANE CIGARETTES ^
Along the Oila River in prehistoric times and long after the dis-
covery of Casa Grande, there grew great quantities of a species of
reed out of which the ancient Gilefios made cigarettes, by filling
short sections, generally between nodes, with tobacco. Some of
these sections are found wrapped with fragments of cotton and in
most instances they are charred. It would appear that when these
cigarettes were used, the smoke was blown through them. An unus-
ually large number of these canes was found in one of the six cere-
monial rooms that extend from the northeast corner of Casa Grande
to the north wall of Compound A. Cigarettes were unearthed also
in rooms of Compound A, but not in Compounds B, C, and D. They i
are found also in shrines, in the hills north of Casa Grande, not far '
from Superstition Mountains. They may be considered sacrificial |
1 The Ilopi cult of the plumed serpent to said to have been derived from Paiatkwabi, the land of the
giant cactua. The writer has seen vases from Casas Qrandes in Chihuahua on which are depicted
serpents bearing horns and leathers on their heads, like those introduced Into Walpi by the Patki clans '
oftheUopi. * I
I
I
I
9;
P
I
i
nswKM] MINOB ANTIQUITIES 143
objects, deposited because they had been used for ceremonial pur^
poses. This form of ceremonial cigarette has been discovered in
some of the ruins along the Little Colorado and is still used among
the Hopi in kiva exercises, although now almost wholly superseded
by cigarettes wrapped in comhusk.
A small dish containing native tobacco (Nicotiana attemUa) was
found in one of the rooms.
SHELL OBJECTS
From the number and variety of marine shells found in the exca-
vations at Gasa Grande it is evident that the ancient inhabitants
prized these objects and either obtained them directly from the sea-
shore, or carried on an extensive trade in them with other tribes.
All the gendra of marine shells found are indigenous to the Pacific
Ocean or the Gulf of California; there is not a single specimen that
can be traced to the Gulf of Mexico. These shells in prehistoric
times must have been widely distributed, for they are f oimd through-
out Arizona and New Mexico and far into Chihuahua. We find the
shells both entire and cut into various ornamental forms, in imitation
of birds, reptiles, frogs, and other animals, the specimens in the last-
named group presenting fine examples of art in shell.
The esteem in which shells were held is explained in part by their
supposed magic power to bnng rain, while the great brilliancy of the
pearly layer of certain genera, as the abalone, or ear shelP (Haliotia),
made them especially attractive ornaments.
The most common genus of mollusk found at Casa Grande is Pec-
tunculus, the Pacific Coast clam, which was cut into a variety of orna-
ments, among which may be mentioned wristlets, armlets, carved
frogs, and ear pendants. The largest specimens of Pectuncultis were
always chosen for armlets, the smaller being made into wristlets.
Armlets were prepared by grinding down the convex surface, leaving
a rim about the knob, which was perforated. As many as seven of
these armlets were found on the humerus of a single skeleton exhumed
from a mound near Compound B. Some armlets and bracelets (see
fig. 48) are ornamented exteriorly with incised lines into which
were rubbed colored paints, as red and yellow. The surface of one
of the most beautiful specimens of incised finger rings was thus dec-
orated with red figures representing rain clouds and lightning. This
specimen (pi. 75, a) is large enough for the middle finger of an adult;
it was found, together wiih bones of a human hand, in a grave. (See
also fig. 49.)
— - I - -
1 Specimens of this shell were found entire and in fragments; some of the latter were oat into orna-
ments and perforated.
144 OASA OBANDE, ABIZONA [vrB.AXN.2S
Several specimens of PectuncuZua were perforated in the middle,
but were not sufficiently ground down to make bracelets or armlets.
These, which were found near the base of a human skull, may have
been parts of necklaces or of strings of shells worn about the neck,
resembhng those which have
been described from ruins in
northern Arizona.
An artistic example of shell
carving found at Casa Grande
represents a frog cut out of a
Pectuncvlus. In this specimen
(pi. 75, h), which is one of the
best shell earrings known to
the author, from the South-
west, the legs, head, and body
are in rehef , the eyes especially
rio.48. B««teio(p«*i»c.j».,haU. being artistically made. (See
also fig. 50.)
One specimen (pt. 75, c) of these shells explains
how the frogs were made. The legs and arms are .
indicated by scratches on one side, the backbone of I
the animal also being marked out by scratches on
the surface of the shell. These markings were fol-
lowed in cutting out the parts of the body. ^BrtC".^ d'i^
Several perforated Pectunciditi shells (pi. 75, d) nua wiih indwd
similar to those found in Little ""*'■
Colorado ruins were brought to light at Casa
Grande,
A single shell fragment, bearing on the back
remains of rows of turquoises, was also found at
Casa Grande. Although it would appear from
several broken specimens that turquoise mosaics
representing animals were not uncommon in the
Gila-Salt region, it is doubtful whether these re-
markable objects were manufactured in Arizona.'
Among the more numerous marine shells wluch were found in
Compound B of the Casa Grande Group of ruins are many large
conchs, the points of the spires of nearly aJI of which were ground off
and perforated as if for trumpets. Judging from known ceremonies
of the Hopi, it is highly probable that these trumpets were used in
dramatic celebrations in which effigies of the great serpent were intro-
duced, the priest using the instruments to imitate the supposed roar
of this animal. More than a dozen complete specimens, and many
1 The torquoiie frog fouDdln Ibt rulra aX CbBw Pan la aeuied la tM Aim. Btp. Bvr. Aiaer. SthnoL,
FKWKBS] MINOB ANTIQUITIES 146
fragments of conch shell that may have been parts of trumpets, were
found in the course of the excavations at Casa Grande, the greater
number being obtained on the west side of Compound B. All these
shells came originally from the Pacific coast.
In addition to the worked shell objects mentioned above, there
were found a few fragments carved to represent various animals,
among them lizards, birds, serpents, rabbits, and certain creatures
the identification of which is impossible. Similar small shell carv-
ings exist in all collections from the Oila ruins and are classified as
fetishes. These small carvings, which give evidence of considerable
artistic skill, were apparently personal amulets. Several had evi-
dently been worn, many being perforated as if formerly suspended
about the neck or fastened 'to the ears or to some other part of
the body. These were picked up on the surface, apparently having
been washed out of the ground by rains. The number found was
comparatively small.
Other shell fragments and shell objects vary from small perfor-
ated disks to spherical or oval beads or small flakes. No cord was
found by which these beads were strung together.
Shells of the genus Conus (pi. 75, e) were cut into tinklers, which
were either attached to sticks, forming rattles, or to the edges of
kiltlike fabrics or garments. These objects were made by cutting
off one end of the shell, generally the pointed extremity; in some
cases the whole spire was removed and the pointed end perforated,
the shell thus becoming a conical bell open at the side. The tin-
kling was produced by rattling several of these attached shells
against one another.^
It was suggested by one of the old Pima that the lip of the Peden
shell was used in making zigzag or other designs on the cheeks, which
had previously been covered with pigment. The shell, he explained,
was drawn down the cheek, its lip being pressed against the skin.
Nearly all the Pima formerly painted their faces for ornamentation
or for protection against the rays of the sun.
BONE IMPLEMENTS
A comparatively small number of bone objects was found, most
of them very good specimens. One of the best was taken from
the collar bone of an adult, having been placed on the shoulder with
the point toward the heart. While most of the bone implements
are needles, awls, and pins, this object has been identified as a dirk.
1 Rattles of this kind are abundant In rains north of the rim of the MogoUones and are still used by
the Hopi and other Pueblos. We sometimes find shells replaced by tinklers made of metal, the best
known examples of which are those on the margin of the kilts of the Snake priests at Walpi.
20903*»— 28 BTH— 12 10
146 CASA GRANDE, ABIZOKA [bth. ank. 28
A tube made of a turkey bone perforated about midway in its length
was doubtless used as a whistle. It is similar to objects used by the
Hopi in some of their ceremonies^ to imitate bird calls. Several arti-
ficially pointed bones are charred at the end.
Among the bones recognized are those of the antelope, turkey,
rabbit, and bear. Bird bones are the most common, but the speci-
mens have been worked to so great an extent as to make identifica-
tion impossible. Most of them are simply pointed, rarely decorated,
but some are perforated for use as beads or needles.
WOODEN IMPLEMENTS
Although there were few trees suitable for building purposes in the
immediate neighborhood of Casa Grande, in the distant hills were
trees of sufficient size to yield good boards. In rooms which have
been .excavated are found long beams of considerable size and flat
boards the surfaces of some of which are as smooth as if they had
been planed. Some of these beams may have been hauled to Casa
Grande from localities at least 5 miles or even farther away; they
are squared and their surfaces bear evidence of having been worked.
They were extensively used to support roofs and floors and in some
of the smaller buildings as studding for the walls. In the latter case
they held in place withes or osiers upon which was laid the plaster.
The trees most commonly used for this purpose were the pine and
cedar.
Ironwood, which is very hard and extremely difficult to cut, was
shaped into planting sticks for cultivating the soil. These (pi. 76)
are saber-shaped, being long and thin-bladed; most of them are pro-
vided with a short handle at one end, while the curved rim is
sharpened. In one of the rooms of Compound A^ was a pile of five
of these objects' averaging 4 to 5 feet in length, that had evidently
been deposited there when the place was deserted. Dibbles and
planting sticks were found also in excavations, especially in the
mound south of Compound B.
Several very good specimens of paddles (pi. 77) of ironwood, of
practically the same shape as modern Pima pottery paddles, were
unearthed at Casa Grande; these vary in form, some being knife-
shaped, others spatulate. They were evidently used in the manu-
facture of pottery, for finishing the outer surface of the vessel. As
1 See ground plan of room 1, near northeast plaza (pi. 6).
* Tbere was somo difference of opinion among Pima workmen and others regarding the use of these impl&*
ments, but the statement of the older men that in their youth they had seen similar objects used as shovels
is accepted as the most probable explanation. Another theory, that they were implements used in war,
after the manner of broadswords, is rejected on account of the exceptional character of such weapans
among the Southwestern tribes.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOOV TWEMTV-EIQHTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 7*
WOODEN SHOVELS OR SPADES
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOOV
MODERN OBJECTS FOUND ON SURFACE
FBWKE8] MIKOB ANTIQUITIES 147
there is no evidence whatever that the ancients of Casa Grande had
knowledge of the potter's wheel, paddles of this kind were necessary.
Smoothing was likewise accomplished by means of stones, after the
clay had dried, in the same way that the fine glossy surface is often
imparted to earthenware by modem Pima potters.
Among other wooden objects are small pointed sticks of ironwood,
a few inches long, which served probably for needles, possibly for
weaving. Decayed fragments of a prayer-stick painted green also
came to light; this was used possibly in prehistoric ceremonies.
The two objects shown in plate 78 were found on the surface and
are modem. The ball was used possibly in the ball game, which is
still played at times by the Pima.
BASKETRY
The women of Casa Grande were skillful basket makers. Many
fragments and several small whole pieces of their work have been
found in the excavations in the houses. The specimens of Casa
Grande baskets obtained are of two kinds, one of which is loosely
woven of willow twigs, flat in form, more like a Hopi plaque than an
ordinary basket. While varying in size, most of these baskets are
quite large, the remains of one indicating so great a capacity that it
might have been lised as a bin for the storage of com or other grain
in much the same way that a similar granary is used by the modem
Pima. The other type of flat basket belongs to the coiled variety,
being made from the fiber of raffia wound over bunches of the same
material. Most of these baskets are mnaXL and bear evidences of
ornamentation, the strands of which they are composed being vari-
ously colored. One specimen of this type was found covered with
a thin deposit, possibly pitch, as if to render it serviceable as a water
jar. Similar waterproof baskets are not uncommon among the
Apache and other Indians of northern Arizona.
A large fragment of coarse matting was unearthed in one of the
rooms; this is evidently part of a mat that was used in much the
same way as the ancient Pima used their sleeping mats. Impressions
of one of these mats were seen upon the adobe floor of one of the
rooms of Compound B, elsewhere mentioned (p. 99). These mats
were made of a rush which, according to historians, fonnerly grew
abundantly along the banks of the Gila and Salt Rivers, but which
in late years has become rare in the vicinity of Casa Grande.
FABBICS
From the number of fragments of cloth excavated at Casa Grande
there is little doubt that the prehistoric inhabitants of this settlement
148 OASA OBANDE, ABIZONA [vth. aicn. 28
were familiar with native cotton and had also fabrics made of other
vegetable fibers.* They likewise wove the hair of certain animals
into articles of wearing apparel. Of all varieties of fiber used in
weaving the most abundant and most readily obtained was that of
the agave, which grows luxuriantly everywhere in southern Arizona
deserts. A combination of this fiber with that of cotton was com-
mon, and the manufacture of feather garments was not unknown.
A small skeleton found in one of the rooms was wrapped in ^
garment of this kind and in another room similar wrappings were
found around a small bowl containing green pigment. There were
unearthed also fragments of a belt decorated with rectangular and
zigzag patterns, similar to designs on fabrics
discovered among cliff-dwellings in northern
Arizona ; one end of this belt was embroidered.
Worthy of mention also is a lace-like fabric,
a large piece of which was unearthed in the
^ ,, ^ ^ „ refuse that formerly almost filled one of the
Fio. 61. Copper bells. . » ^ ^ i ^
rooms just east of Casa Grande. On ac-
count of the great heat, thick clothing was not made by the people
of this community.
COPPER BELLS
The inhabitants of Casa Grande appear to have been ignorant of all
metals except float copper, a specimen of which was found in the
excavations (pi. 67,/). Two copper bells (fig. 51) were picked up on
the surface of the ground. These bells do not differ in shape or size
from those found in ruins along the Little Colorado and elsewhere in
the Southwest and may have been obtained in trade from Mexico,
although there is no evidence that they were not made by the Casa
Grande people.
PICTOGRAPHS
Casa Grande is situated in a plain and in the immediate neigh-
borhood there are no outcroppings of rocks available for pictographs,
although it is probable that certain pictures on rocks distant about a
mile date back to the time when Casa Grande was inhabited. As
a rule, these pictographs are pecked into the rock^ paintings, if any,
having been washed or worn away. The largest cluster of picto-
graphs lies in the outcropping lava on the north side of the Gila,
opposite the settlement of Pima, called Blackwater.
There are also many pictographs on the "pictured rocks" a few
miles east of Florence, and still others in the Casa Grande Mountain
1 Many of the fragments of cloth found were charred, and on that aooount some of the best specimens
fell to pieces when handled.
FIWKHI MIKOB ANTIQUITIES 149
Range west of the ruins. The pictographs near SacatoD are perhaps
the best known in this section, although those farther down the Gila
are more extensive. There is a general similarity in all these picture
writings, somo of which are regarded with reverence by modem
Pima.
The pictures impart but slight infonnation respecting the life or
customs of the prehistoric people who made them, being much the same
as picti^rapha found elsewhere in the Southwest. Symbols that may
be clan totems or even rude
representations of mytho- . .' ■■_.■,
logic beings are found in
/the neighboring hills; these
may indicate camping places,
shrines, or other sites, hut
beyond this we can offer no
su^estion as to their mean-
ing. They tell no connected
story of the ancients.
liie walls of Casa Grande
formerly bore names of many
American visitors and a few
markings that can be as-
cribed to Indians. One of
the best of these, shown in
the accompanying illustra-
tion (fig. 52; see also pi. 40), is
sometimes called tcukuki, or " the bouse of Tcuhu." Its resemblance
to a figure in an early Spanish narration has been commented on
elsewhere.' Several pictographs found in the vicinity of Casa Grande
are also shown in plate 40.
In a speech in the House of Representatives (Mar. 2, 1865) Colo-
nel Poston said:
The oldest living tiapper in Arizona, at this day, is old Pauline Weaver, from While
County, Tennessee. His name is carved on the Casa Giaade, aeoi the Pima villagee
on the Gila River, under date 1832.
Althou^ not disposed to doubt that Weaver may have visited the
ruin at that eariy date, the writer has not been able to find his name
or the date on its walls.
I See jtmcrinn ^MlrspoIsrW, N. a.,!!, Gil, ItOT. The icooaiit pmtouiJy qooMd iTom the Kudo
Enayo la that b«n relnnd to. Tb* fcalaU vaa not a ruin, h tha authoriuulcnbnd the Pima, but a
game In vbkh tlie Bgan mnitlonRl n mirkcd out oa tlw nuid. Tblj gixat, anr about cxtliict, hat bMtt
pU;Rl within tht mammy alone of the witter's hi'
Fki. 01. iDobed plotoenph ot "the Bonao of Toohn."
150 CA8A GRANDE, ARIZONA [KTH.Aanr.28
SEEDS
In one of the rooms east of Casa Grande were found seeds of several
kinds — com, beans, and mesquite beans. The com grains were often
encountered in masses, generaUy charred, some being so much burnt
that they were recognizable only with difficulty.
Some of these seeds were found in pottery vessels, many of which
were in fragmentary condition; most of this pottery came to light in
the rooms east of the main building of Compound A, which was
evidently used as a dumping place long after the rooms were aban-
doned. The presence of many fragments of textiles, pottery, com
stalks and leaves, charcoal from sticks or beams, and ashes in quanti-
ties suggested that possibly fires were once built here.
RELATION OF COMPOUNDS TO PUEBLOS
The architecture of the compounds of the Gila-Salt Basin is suffi-
ciently characteristic to distinguish them from pueblos, making pos-
sible tlio assumption that the sociology of the peoples was also
different. In compounds and pueblos we recognize buildings of at
least two typos, apparently devoted to two distinct purposes, secular
and ceremonial. The homologue of the massive house with its sur-
rounding wall is unknown among pueblos, and the hiva of the latter
is not roprosentod architecturally in the Gila Valley ruins.*
It is instructive to note that the ruins in the valley of the Little
Colorado, whore the influence of the Gila Valley culture was marked,
contain no true kivtia. Their ceremonial rooms were Jcikus, morpho-
logically difTenuit from, although functionally the same as, kivas.
IMio ZuAi Huntae architecturally resembles a kihu rather than a kiva,
and is probably a survivor of the ceremonial room of the Little Colo-
rado ruins. Among the Ilopi there are both kivas and kihus, the
fonnor truooablo to northern and eastern influence. The reason kivas
have not boon found in the Little Colorado drainage is that there the
ot^ronionial rooms wore kihus, wluch are difficult to distinguish from
othor n>oni8 in the house masses.
Iti is hard to n^ach a definite conclusion r^arding the relative ages
of the (Hla Valloy compounds and the pueblos of northern Arizona,
or io compare as to age tiie Arizona ruins with those of New Mexico
and (\)lorado. If we rtxly on traditions for that comparison, they
t.(Mu*h, in the opinion of tJie writer, that both are older than the little
(\)l(U*ado pueblos, to which group the Zuiii ruins belong.
1 1 hmi> two i^MUtiH>lunU Kwi^M of Pueblo cvromoiilil roooa w so different that one oao hardly have
l»M>M tl«>t I \ p%\ mmi (h« oUMkr. Th«y «r» auakicoui but not homokcous, and their reiatioDa are dilfioutt to
rawKBS] RELATION OF COMPOUNDS TO PUEBLOS 151
Culturally, all northern^ and central Arizona ruins, ancient and mod-
em, seem to show a dual composition, having connections on the one
side with the Rio Grande pueblos and on the other with the habitations
of the Gila Valley. Whether the pueblos of New Mexico in the Rio
Grande drainage were derived from the compounds of the Gila or
vice versa, is an open question, but there seem to have been two foci
of cultural distribution m the Southwest.
Hopi traditions support the theory that the ruins in the Verde and
Tonto Valleys were settled by offshoots from the "great house"
builders of the Gila and Salt Valleys in prehistoric times, and that the
ruins along the Little Colorado were peopled in part by clans from
the same river valleys. There appears to be no way of ascertaining
the sources or the relative age of the Rio Grande culture, whether
derivative or autochthonous.'
The geographic limits of the ruins called ''compounds'' appear to
be the plains of the Gila-Salt Basin. Following up the tributaries of
the Gila-Salt, these ruins give place to pueblos and cliff-houses, and
even where there are extensive plains, as in the Little Colorado Basin,
the construction of ''great houses" like Casa Grande does not appear
to have been undertaken. The so-called Casas Grandes ruins in
Chihuahua, however, belong to the same type as the compounds in
the Gilar^alt Valley of Arizona, although larger and apparently more
ancient. The environmental conditions of the deserts of southern
Arizona and northern Mexico, like the ruins, are quite similar.
Although without kivas, the cliff-houses in the Sierra Madre of
northwestern Mexico resemble in many features those of Arizona,
Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah, and stand in somewhat the same
relation to the casas grandes along the river of the same name as do
the cliff-dwellings near Roosevelt Dam to Casa Grande. This in-
dicates the existence of a homogeneous culture, and shows that,
where similar environmental conditions existed, the inhabitants con-
structed similar dwellings. By this method of reasoning, the conclu-
sion is reached that the Sierra Madre and the Arizona cliff-dwellings
were not derived one from the other, but arose as independent modi-
fications of a similar culture.^
Thus, it would appear that while architecturally there is con-
siderable difference between the compounds and the pueblos, some
of the latter may have housed descendants of the inhabitants of the
former None of these pueblos, however, are found in the neighbor-
> Except poflslbly those on the San Juan and Its tributaries.
* There Is eyidenoe that some of the oldest HopI villages were settled by clans fh>m this region.
* The circular subterranean kiva, so constant a feature of the cllfl-houses of northern Arisona, soathcm
Colorado, and the Rio Grande and Ban Juan drainage, does not exist in the cliff-houses of southern Ari-
zona, nor in the Sierra Madre in Mexico. This form is not found in the cllfl-houses of the Red Rocks, on
the Verde, or on any tributary of the OUa; it orighiated In the eastern part of the Pueblo area, and its influ-
ence was not suflkslent to be felt in any prehistoric pueblo on the Colorado River.
152 CA6A GBANDE, ABIZONA [aTH.AifH.
hood of the ''great houses" of the Gila-Salt Basin; there are no
modern pueblos in southern Arizona. When Europeans entered the
Gila Valley they found tribes living in isolated dwellings not very
different from the houses of modem Pima and Papago, who are sup-
posed to be the descendants of the builders of Casa Grande.
The appearance of the great walled compounds like Casa Grande
suggests the warlike rather than the peaceful character of the inhab-
itants. They were constructed for defense and their presence imphes
that their builders had enemies they feared. It is hardly possible
that any considerable number of distant enemies could have menaced
Casa Grande at the time this structure was built, but its inhabitants
were fearful of their own neighbors, of warriors of their own stock,
perhaps speaking their own language. Judging from what we know
of the Pueblos, there was little unity of action among the people of
the compounds. The conditions were feudal, each community for
itself; the people did not unite to resist a common foe. Constant raid-
ing led to a union of related clans, which erected thick-walled dwell-
ings for protection. Possibly something akin to what has been called
the "megaUthic era" influenced these ever-growing communities.
The "unconscious aim at expression of abstract power" by huge
buildings may also have had its influence. An American feudal sys-
tem developed in the Gila-Salado Basin, marked by the erection of
buildings belonging to some chief (civan), around which were clus-
tered small huts in which the common people lived. There was
nothing Uke this condition among the Pueblos or even probably
among the cliff-dwellers, but such a condition existed in Mexico in
the days before the advent of the European conquerors.
But if it be true that ancestors of the Pima built Casa Grande, why,
it may be asked, have the Pima lost the art of building '' great
houses/' and why did they inhabit only small huts when the Spanish
explorers came?* In reply it may be said that they were forced to
abandon their great structures, being unable to defend them on
account of their unwieldy size. Hostile invaders found these con-
spicuous structures easy prey and broke up this phase of Pima cul-
ture, overcoming the chiefs and driving out the defenders of the com-
pounds. But, although scattered, the common people naturally con-
tinued to occupy inconspicuous huts similar to those in which they
had always lived. (See fig. 53.) This apparent change of culture is
paralleled among sedentary tribes in Mexico. Although forced to
desert their temples and great buildings, the ancient Mexicans still
lived in huts, in which nothing remained to tempt the cupidity of
their enemies.
I '^Ureat houses" are said by Bandelier, quoting Father Ribas (Final Report, pt. n, p. 460), to have
been occupied by southern Pima In historic times.
p«w8M] BBLATION OF COMPOUNDS TO PtJEBLOB 153
Summary of Conclusions
The preceding conclusions may be summarized as follows: In
ancient times the whole drainage of the Gila and its tributaries from
the points where they leave the . mountains as far at least as Gila
Bend was inhabited by an agricultural people in a homogeneous stage
of culture. Throughout this region existed minor divisions of a
common stock. The Fima name Ilohokam may be adopted to des-
ignate this ancestral stock, to whom may be ascribed the erection
of the casaa grandee on the Gila. These "great houses" were places
of refuge, ceremony, and trade. They were inhabited and ruled by .
the chiefs whose names they bear among the present Pima. The
Flo. OS. UodMol FlmAclnalMtioaM ooDstruoUd south of Compound A,
people dwelt in small huts of perishable character, not unlike Fima
jacaiet of historic times, a few of which still survive. In the course of
time a hostile faction bent on pillage came into this region from east
or west and drove the agriculturists out of their casaa grandes or at
least broke up the custom of building such structures. But although
dispersed, the ancient house builders were not exterminated ; some of
them became refugees and migrated south into Mexico, some followed
the course of the Verde and the Tonto into the northern mountains,
but others, perhaps the majority, gradually lost their former culture
but still remained in the Gila Valley, becoming ancestors of the present
Pima, Papago, and Kwahadt (Qualiatika) . Those who went north-
ward later built pueblos (now ruins) in the Little Colorado Valley.
154 OASA. OBA.HDE, ASIZOKA [bth-ann, 28
Their descendants ultimately joined the Zufli and the Hopi, with
whom, according to legends, they still live.'
Historians have paid little attention to these migrations, for they
occurred in prehistoric times, but vague legends still survive among
both Zufii and Hopi bearing on the life of some of their clans in the
south. These migration legends are supported by archeologic evi-
dence and are supplemented by Pima traditions.
One objection that has been repeatedly urged against acceptance
of the traditions of the modem Fima that they are descendants of the
inhabitants of Casa Grande is that the former do not now construct
great massive-walled houses like the buildings here described, but
PiQ. M. Typkal izwdani Fluui ncMngulu dveUlng.
Uve in thin-walled houses supported by posts. The Pima have
not constructed habitations of the former type in historic tim«s.
The excavations in Compound B show that many fr^;ile-walled
houses of rectangular form once stood within ttus inclosure and there
is good evidence that they existed in the other compounds also.
The people of Casa Grande, or at least some of them, inhabited the
same kind of houses as the modem Pima. These great buildings
are not habitations; they are sacred edifices or conunuoal citadels.
But it may be objected that the typical Pima houses were round,
■ These legends caO for new itaeejcba on tiia ch&racter ot tba prehtitorio culture along tbe northern
tributults of ll» Salt Klvar, the Verds, the Tonto, and other stmanu. Accuiata Inlomutlon on tha lol-
iDwiag, unong other, polnla ia needed: (1) What relation eclsts between the Bj'mbolisin on pottery [rom
these volSeys and on that from the Qiis and the Little Coloradot (2) Was crenutloo practiaed along
tha Verde and tha Tonto In prehblorio thnesl la theie tn; evldance of cmnttloD hi nilns on the Little
Colorado T
FBWKB8] KBLATION OF COMPOUNDS TO PUEBLOS 155
while those of Casa Grande were rectangular.^ (Figs. 53, 54.) This
objection at present seems unanswerable, but attention may be drawn
to the fact that some of the Pima dwellings are rectangular. Objec-
tion is made also because of the difference in the manner of disposal of
the dead. As is well known, the Pima do not bum their dead, whereas
cremation was a common custom at Casa Grande. Evidence has
been presented already, showing that the inhabitants of Casa Grande
sometimes interred their dead as well as burned them and that both
customs existed side by side in the same compound.
In traversing the Gila region one finds mounds of earth, reservoirs,
and remains of irrigation ditches similar to those above considered.
Examination of these structures reveals a morphologic resemblance
which leads us to regard this region as a single culture area. On
comparison of the architecture of Casa Grande with that typical of
cave or pueblo constructions the differences seem to be so marked
that they can not be. included in the culture area of which the first-
named style of architecture is a type. The Pueblo culture area is
architecturally different. But when Casa Grande is compared with
buildings farther south, including those in the northern States of
Mexico, striking resemblances appear. The Gila Valley culture area
is limited on the north by the plateau region, but extends to an as yet
undefined border on the south.
There are similar limitations and extensions in physiographic condi-
tions. The environment changes as we pass out of the culture area of
which Casa Grande is a type into the region of Pueblo culture. It is
not illogical to suppose, therefore, that Casa Grande affords another
striking example of intimate relationship between human culture and
environment, under a law intimately connected with a more compre-
hensive one, namely, the relation of geography and human culture
histoiy.
As pointed out by the late Doctor Russell, the Pima have legends
that they came from the east, but he does not state that all the Pima
clans have identical legends. Some clans claim that their ancestors
built Casa Grande; here the legends may refer to those clans living in
the Gila Valley before the arrival of the eastern contingent mentioned
by Russell. Like most of the Southwestern tribes, the modem Pima
show evidences of being a composite tribe and it is not unlikely that
ancestors of some of the components may have come from one direc-
tion, others from another. The craniologic differences between the
builders of the Gila-Salt compounds and the modem Pima may be
accounted for by this fact.
1 None of the wattle-walled hats, the floors and decayed posts of which can be so well traced In Com-
pound B, were circular in form. When the Pima were flrst visited nearly all their huts were circular.
Only a few of this type now remain.
156 CASA OBANDEy ABIZOKA [bth. anv. 28
In the light of the various objects found at Casa Grande, akeady
described, the inhabitants of the prehistoric settlement may be con-
sidered as people of the Stone Age, notwithstanding their acquaint-
ance with copper. There is no evidence that they were familiar
with any other metals, as iron, bronze, silver, or gold. But even
in this stage they must have developed a comparatively high social
organization. Every student of the ''great houses" of the Gila-
Salado Basin must marvel at their relatively enormous size and the
evidences of cooperation and intelligent direction of labor that they
show. The erection of such structures requires many workmen and
an able director, a sociologic condition not found elsewhere in North
America outside of Mexico. In another place the writer ascribes
the origin of this cooperation to the necessity of union of labor in
the construction of the irrigation ditches essential for successful agri-
culture in this region, one of many examples that might be cited of
the influence of climate on culture history in the Southwest.
These buildings were constructed on a characteristic plan, which was
adhered to everywhere in the Gila Valley. As already stated, the
builders evolved two distinct types of architecture: ''Great houses"
with thick walls, apparently constructed by many persons, features
wliich point to these structures as devoted to public purposes; (2)
one-room habitations with wattle walls, provided with a central fire-
place in the floor, and with a doorway in the middle of one of the
long sides. ^
The presence of stone idols indicates a well-developed idolatry
and ceremonial system. While the inhabitants possessed effective
weapons in the form of spears, and bows and arrows, they were
essentially agricultural, cultivating fields of com and possibly beans,
squashes, and the like. They also gathered mesquite beans.
They wove fibers into belts or into cloth which was colored with
bright pigments. They raised cotton and utilized the fibers of agave
and other plants in weaving. They made basketry and pottery,
which they decorated with symbols, but did not glaze. As potters
they were inferior to their neighbors at Casas Grandes, in Chihuahua,'
and to the aboriginal artists of Sikyatki and Awatobi in the Hopi
country. In disposing of their dead they practised both cremation
and inhumation.
A conclusion arrived at in the writer's studies of the habitations,
sometimes called pueblos, of sedentary peoples in the Southwest, is
. 1 It is inobable that the doorway served also as a smoke vent, as In modem Pima houses, which are not
provided with an opening in the roof.
* The pottery trom this Mexican State shares with that from Sikyatki and other ancient Hopi ruins, the
reputation of being the best painted ware of prehistoric North America, exclusive of southern Mexico and
Central America. The relation of the polychrome ware trom these two regions is close so far as colors are
concerned, but diverse as regards symbols.
FBWKBS] BELATION OF COMPOUNDS TO PUEBLOS 157
that they form two distinct architectural types — the true pueblos and
the compounds— differing radically from each other. These indicate
two centers of cultural distribution, one of which was in the east, the
other in the south, or, broadly speaking, in what is now called Colo-
rado and New Mexico on the one hand, and southern Arizona on the
other. Between these centers lies the great valley of the Little Colo-
rado, which was a meeting ground of prehistoric people, wherein a
mixed cultural type was formed and distributed. It has a composite
type of pottery showing features of the Colorado-New Mexican and the
southern Arizonian ware, sometimes one, sometimes the other, pre-
dominating.
The aboriginal migrations of man in the Southwest may be roughly
likened td the spread of vegetation or to the stocking of regions by
animals from a center of distribution. There was a slow passing of
clans from one place to another, largely influenced by the scarcity or
abundance of water and food. The pressure of incoming hostiles
played a part in determining the directions of the migrations, but not
the most important part, the main cause being failure of water, due
to desiccation of the land, and increased salinity. The situation of
streams was an important factor in these migrations, as it determined
the location of the trails which man followed. The routes of the pre-
historic migrations are indicated by ruins left along the banks of these
streams. In these movements sites that could be readily defended
were generally adopted, but each group of clans acted independently:
there was little unity of action and at times open hostility among
members of the same group. Clusters of clans were continually
uniting and groups of families were as constantly diverging from the
main body. Two great movements can be detected, one setting from
the Rio Grande toward the west and south, and the other from the
Gila toward the north and east. An objective region for both was
the valley of the Little Colorado, which offered an attractive home
for all the tribes.
The Grand Canyon of the Colorado, situated north and west of the
Pueblo region, served to keep back from the Little Colorado Valley
the inhabitants of the country in those directions, so the immigrants
entered this region in prehistoric times mainly from the east and
south. One stream of colonists followed down the San Juan, another
went up the northern tributaries of the Salt. The ruins at Black
Falls mark the southern limit of the people passing west and south
from the San Juan ; those on the Little Colorado above Black Falls
can be traced to the southern colonists.
The advent of the southern colonists into the Little Colorado Basin
was at a late day; their influence was widely spread. ^The tributaries
entering the Salt from the north served as pathways by which the
cultinre of the south spread from the Gila north and northeast.
158 GA8A GBAKDEy ABIZOKA [bth. anm. 28
Of the various tributaries tliat have served for the transmission
northward of the culture of the GilarSait r^ion the Tonto and the
Verde were the most important routes. Along their banks are
many ruins of former houses of the clans from the south that migrated
northward, a few reaching Tusayan, as traditions of the Hopi declare.
Mindeleff ^ reached the conclusion, from which the author dissents,
that there was a migration in the Verde Valley from the north to the
south, as shown in the following quotation:
The internal evidence supports the concluflion that the movement [along the Verde]
was southward and that in the large ruin near Limestone Creek the inhabitants of the
lower Verde Valley had their last resting place before they were absorbed by the
population south of them, or were driven permanently from this region.
The existence of many large ruins and the small amount of arable
land in the southern part of the Verde Valley would seem to indicate
that the clans traversed the valley seeking better agricultural lands,
the soil improving as one goes noith. They crossed the mountains
from south to north, eventually descending into the valley of the
Little Colorado, which was uninhabited. An examination . of
the narrow lower Verde Valley shows that it was not fitted for the
support of so large a population as that indicated by the re-
mains of the great settlements along the Gila. The ruins of
the pueblos built in this region bear inherent evidences that they
were not long iohabited; the clans drifted farther north, where
the valley afforded better soil and more abundant water. With
progress northward the number of ruins increases, showing that the
land was more thickly populated and the length of occupancy greater.
When the emigrants above mentioned met the eastern clans they
became assimilated with them and the farther they went from the
Gila the more they lost resemblance to the parent type. The sphere
of influence of the southern culture can be fairly well traced, its
northern limit being not far from the mesas of the Hopi, who have
been somewhat modified by it. It can be traced as far as the upper
Verde and extended eastward to the pueblo of Acoma.'
The ruins directly ascribed to the southern culture show little
influence of Keresan or Tanoan clans but suggest the blocks of build-
ings in the Gila compounds. These ruins contain no circular subter-
ranean kivas. The pottery of these southern pueblos has character-
istic symbols traceable throughout the regions to which its influence
extended.
The pottery of the first-settled pueblos of the Hopi, as Sikyatki,
is distinctly allied to that of the eastern cultm^e type and shows little
resemblance to that from the south. Hopi pottery was never pro-
1 In ISth Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol., p. 259.
* Pueblo ruins like Klntiel, north of Navaho Springs, show strongly this southern influenoe and marked
resemblance to Zufli Valley ruins.
FBWKB8] BELATION OP COMPOUNDS TO PUEBLOS 159
foundly aflFected by clans from that direction. Prehistoric Hopi
pottery symbols are Keresan. The influx of Tewa and Tigua in com-
paratively modem times has radically modified the symbols so that,
as elsewhere pointed out, modem Hopi pottery is practically Tanoan.
At Zufii, however, prehistoric pottery is more closely related to
that of the southern clans, by whom the valley was first settled, and
belongs to the Little Colorado ceramic area.^ Modern Zufii pottery,
however, is radically different from the ancient, resembling that of
modem Hano or of the so-called modern Hopi.
If, as the character of the pottery seems to indicate, Zufd cultiure
is more modem than Hopi culture, the earliest colonists in the Zufii
Valley were clans related to those that peopled the Little Colorado
Basin later than the time of the founding of Sikyatki and other pre-
historic Hopi pueblos.
A comparative study of Acoma pottery sheds no light on the age
of Zufii as compared with that of the abandoned pueblos of the
Little Colorado and the ancient Hopi ruins. Very little archeologic
data regarding Acoma has been gathered, and few clan or migration
legends of this pueblo have been published, but judging from ceramic
decoration it appears that Acoma pottery bears little resemblance to
that peculiar to southern clans; it is distinctly Keresan and resembles
more closely the pottery of ancient Hopi than it does that of ancient
Zufii or Little Colorado ware, by which it does not appear to have
been affected. Certain known facts bear on this question. Acoma
is the oldest pueblo on an ancient site in the Southwest. Since its
settlement it has been in continual conflict with other peoples. When
its clans came into the country they were forced to defend themselves
and chose as the site of their home a high rock, from which other
clans could not dislodge them. Acoma is regarded, then, as the east-
em limit of southern, or Gila, influence and marks one point on a line
of demarkation of the dual influences which merged at Hopi and Zufii.
According to Hopi legend, it was settled by clans allied to the Snake
and the Horn, from Tok6nabi on the San Juan, which united with
those from the far eastern region, possibly of Keresan parentage, as
the present language indicates.
The Hopi Snake legend tells of clans called the Tcamahia that left
the Snake clans at Wukoki on the Little Colorado and made their way
east to Acoma,' where they met other clans from the east. These
two groups were kindred, and as Tcamahia is a Keresan term we
may conclude that they were Keresan in kin. The relations of the
Tcamahia of Acoma and the Snake clans at Walpi were never com-
I From the relation of the ancient ZufU pottery to that of the Little Colorado and the Gila the writer Is
led to belteve that the first colonists of that valley came from the south and west. *
> In estimating the extent of the Influence of Olla Valley culture In the northeastern part of the pueblo
region, especially In the neighborhood of Aooma/lt Is desirable that ruins ascribed to ancestors of Aooma
elans be studied In the light of their traditions.
160 CASA OBANDE9 ABIZONA [bth. ank. 28
pletely broken, and at eveiy Snake festival one of the Tcamahia
from Acoma is a guest. This is the asperger, who chants the words
Tcamahia, Awdhaia, etc.
In considering the prehistoric migrations of agricultural peoples
in the Southwest, especially with respect to changes in culture and
to diminution of population, we must not lose sight of the influence
of increased salinity due, directly or indirectly, to long-continued
prehistoric irrigation. This cause was perhaps more effectual than
human enemies or increased aridity in breaking up the prehistoric
culture. If barrenness of the soil, due to the cause mentioned, led
to the abandonment of populous aboriginal compounds, this fact
has an important bearing on the future of the white farmers in the
Gila and Salt River Valleys.
APPENDIX
CATALOGUE OF SPECIMENS FROM CASA GRANDE
Following is a list of specimens collected from Casa Grande in
1906-7 and 1907-8, prepared by Mr. E. P. Upham, of the United
States National Museum, who has introduced measurements of many
of the objects. The objects bearing accession number 48761 were
obtained mainly from Compound A in 1906-7, and the remainder,
under. No. 49619, are from Compounds B, C, D, and Qan-house 1,
collected in 1907-8. A few specimens were picked up on the surface
of the ground between the compounds or dug up in the mounds east
and south of Compound B, midway between Compound A and Qan-
house 1.
The whole number of specimens obtained is approximately 1,300,
exclusive of fragments and objects gathered from the surface, some
possibly not belonging to the ancients. The brief references to the
Casa Grande specimens in the following lists are supplementary to
the more complete descriptions, accompanied with illustrations, of
some of the more striking examples that appear in the preceding
pages.
Accession No. 4S761, Casa Grande, Arizona
U.S.
Nat.
Mtis.
No.
Bur.
Amer.
Eth.
No.
251609
477a
251670
478b
251671
479c
251672
480d
251<r73
481e
251674
482f
251075
483k
261676
484a
251677
485b
251678
4860
251679
487d
251680
488a
251681
489f
261682
490g
252001
1
252002
2
252003
3
252004
4
252005
5
252006
6
252007
7
Articles
Fragment of clay vessel with painted bird's head; length, 4} inches
Wooden pottery paddle; 6} x 2} inches
Doub]fr«dged stone ax; length, 4| inches; width, 2} inches
Stone shovel; length, 5) inches; width, 4} inches
stone ball used in game; diameter, 2^ inches
stone paint grinder; height, 2i Inches; diameter, 4 Inches
Wooden hoe; length, 3 fieet 2} inches; width, 4| inches
Pectunculus shell, carved to represent frog (surface); length, 2 inches
Clay saucer with three legs; height, 2} inches; diameter, 5} inches
Carved stone serpents (surface); length, 2| inches; diameter, 1^ inches
Stone slab for paint grinding; length, 3 inches; width, 1] inches
Problematical stone (surface); length, ^ inches
Clay bowl; height, 3 inches; diameter, 6| inches
Perforated Pectunculus shell; diameter, 2 inches
Fragments of pottery
Earthenware bowl, containing six Pectunculus shells
Earthenware vase
Earthenware disks
Pieces of large earthoiware vessel with charred boniN of birds and small animals
attached
Pieces of charrsd shell
Charred bone implements, fragments of pottery, sheUs, quarts, crystal, etc
20903**— 28 ETH— 12 11 161
Lots
29
2
2
1
162
CASA GRANDE, ABIZOKA
[BTH. ANN. 28
Accesnon No. 487 61 ^ Com, Grande^ Arizona — Continued.
U. 8,
Nat.
MU8.
No.
252008
252009
252010
252011
262012
252013
252014
252015
252016
262017
252018
252019
252020
252021
252022
252023
252024
252025
252026
252027
252028
262029
252030
252031
252032
252033
252034
252035
262636
252037
252038
252039
252040
262041
252042
252043
252044
252045
252046
262047
252048
252049
252050
252051
252052
252063
252054
252056
252056
Bar.
Amcr.
Eth.
No.
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
16
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
62
53
54
55
56
Articles
Charooal cylinders, paint sticks
Mass 0 f charred com
Shell, Pecten
Piece of charred sea shell
Stone ax, double-bitted, showing effects of fire; length, 5} Inches
Grooved stone ax, showing effects of fire; length, 6} inches
Piece of charred beam; length, 14 inches
Pieces of wooden beams or posts; lengths, 13^, 16^ inches
Fragments of wooden hoes; Mound 6, east of Compound B
Stone mortar, slab; 12^x10^% 4} Inches
Rubbing stones, mainly rectangular in outline; lengths, 2} to 5} Inches
Hammer stones, Irregularly shaped pieoes, witli battered edges
Stone disks, natural forms, some with fractured edges; diameters, 3i to 6| inches. . .
Stone pestle in form of tapering cylinder; length, 6| inches
Arrow-shaft polisher (broken); length, 3 inches
Irregulariy shaped natural forms
Fragment of pottery, leg of tripod vase; length, 2 inches
Earthenware pot, lospension holes near rim, plain ware; height, 5^ inches; diameter,
7 inches; Mound 6, Group B
Fragment of earthenware vessel , plahi ware
Earthenware bowl, painted decoration; height, 6 inches; broken butcan be restored;
Mound 6, Group B .'
Fragments of pottery, vases, some decorated; Mound 2, Group B
Fragments of pottery, handle of vase, decorated
Shell bead and pendants, Conus
Concretion; length, 5 inches
Piece of obsidian ( waterwom); length, 6 inches
Earthenware bowl, plain ware; diameter, 6} inches; height, 3^ inches
Earthenware bowl, fragment
Fragments of decorated pottery
Lots
26
.do.
.do.
Fragments of tripod dish (small;
Clay disks made from broken vessels; 7 perforated, 5 not perforated
Animal figurine, baked clay; length, 1| inches
Charred bones, fragments
Charred shells
Pitted stone (lava), oval outline; length, 4} inches
Pitted stone (lava), globular outline; dian)jBter, 3 inches
Piece of red ocher (paint)
Polishing stone; 3^ x J x ) inches
Concretions lised as polishers (small)
Obsidian flake, knife; length, 3 inches
Piece of bluish clay, paint
Concretions and quarts crystals
Digging tools of iron ^ (spade-like); length, 7 inches; (evidently Spanish; not pre-
historic)
Mealing stone; 7x4x2 inches
Hammer stones; lengths, 3i and 3} inches
Rubbing stones, small, lava; lengths, 3 and 3} inches
Piece of adobe (cylindrical); length, 5 inches; diameter, 4^ inches
Piece of adobe, irregular shape
12
2
1
2
8
2
1
2
2
1
1
> These were
Hear the ruin,
long after the
purchased from an Indian who may or may not have picked them up on the surface at or ,
They illustrate the form of spade introduced by the Spaniards and used by the Pima
Amencan occupation.
rBWKBS]
APPENDIX
Accession No. 4S761y Casa Grande, Arizona — Continued.
168
U.S.
Nat.
Mas.
Na
Bur.
Amer.
Eth.
No.
252067
57
252058
58
252050
50
252oeo
60
252061
61
252002
62
252063
63
252064
64
252066
66
252066
66
2520G7
67
252068
68
252060
60
262070
70
252071
71
252072
72
252073
73
252074
74
252075
75
252076
76
262077
77
252078
78
252070
70
262060
80
262061
81
252062
82
262063
83
262064
84
252065
85
252066
86
252067
87
252088
88
252060
80
252090
90
252091
01
262092
02
252093
03
2S2004
04
252006
05
•
252096
06
252097
^7
262008
08
252000
00
252100
100
252101
101
252102
102
252103
103
252104
104
Articles
Piece of adobe, Incised design
Part of laiige disk of elay , bearing stamped design
Globular and Irregularly sh^ied ooncrsttons; shrine offerings
Squared pieces of lava, mealing stones
Squared pleoes of lava, with pits on two surfaces; 5| x 4 x 2| Inches
Pitted stone, oval outline, lava; length, 4^ Inches
Rubbing stone (lava), disk with rounded upper surface; diameter, 4} Inches
Fragment of Implement (lava), originally with perforation
Pestle (lava) with expanding base; length, 3} Inches
Rubbing stone; 5x3x21nches
Hammer stone, cylindrical; length, 2} Inches; diameter, 1} Inches
Hammers, Irregularly shaped, with abraded edges.
Fragment of metate
Fragment of baUng plate
Water-worn pebbles, slight evidenoes of use; rubbing stones
Dlsk-Uke natural forms
Chipped blade, digging Implement; 5} x 4i x | Inches
Piece of stone, flat surface, with trMses of paint
Sharpening or abrading Implement, made of sandstone, with squared edges;
5} x5xli Inches
Sharpening or abrading stone, made of sandstone, with squared edges; 6| x 3( x 1|
Inches
Sharpening or abrading stone; 4 x 2 x | Inches.
Sharpening or abrading stone; 3} x 2} x } inches
Sharpening or abrading stone; 3 x 1| x j inches
Sharpening or abrading stone; sandstone, with longitudinal groove In one surface;
5} X 4i X li Inches
Sharpening or abrading stone, tufa; 5| x 3f x 2} Inches
Slab for mixing paint; 5} x 3| x | inches
Whetstone, oval section; 8 x 1| x 1| inches
Lot of chaired and much weathered pieces of wood, beams, lintels, etc., from the
northwest court. Compound A
Lot of charred timbers, etc
Hammer stones; Irregularly shaped pieces with battered edges
Rubbing Implement (lava); section, rounded prIam; length, 4} Inches
Rubbing Implement; Irregular shape, with one flat surface; length, 4| Inches
Rubbing Implement; Irregular shape, with one flat surface; length, 4 Inches
Small pestle (lava); conical; length, 4 inches
Rubbing implements of tufa; nearly disk-shaped; diameters. 2) to 2f Inches
Sharpening or abrading implement, sandstone, with squared edges; 6f x 4) x
li inches
Sharpening or abrading implement (fragment)
....do
Sharpening or abrading Implement (fragment ; sandstone)
Stone with much worn depressions, grinding stone for implements; 6} x 6 x 1
iiKshes
Small paint mortar, oval outline; 4 x 2i x 1} inches
Grooved stone, shaft rubber, Irregular outline
Water>worn pebbles; no signs of use
Fragipent of obsidian
Piece of ore '
Mass of quarts crystals
Concretions of unusual forms
Piece of baked clay
Lots
05
16
164
CASA GBANDE, ABIZOKA
[VTH. ANN. 28
Accession No. 4S761, Com Grande, Arizona — Continued.
U.S.
Nst.
Has.
No.
26210S
2S2106
252107
252108
252109
252110
252111
262112
252113
2521U
252115
252116
252117
252118
252119
252120
252121
252122
252123
252124
252125
252126
4152127
252128
252129
252130
252131
252132
252133
262134
252135
252136
252137
252138
252139
252140
Bur.
Amor,
Eth.
No.
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
252141
141
252142
142
252143
143
252144
144
252145
145
262146
146
262147
252148
252149
262150
Artlotos
Lots
147
148
149
150
yragments of charred textile, garment* room west of Father Font's room. Com-
pound A
....do
Charred basketry
Charred com and fragments of basketry
Mass of charred thread
Charred com
Piooe of charred reeds wrapped with twine
Charred seeds
Charred basketry
Shell, Peotimculos
SheU.CardlU
Unworked shells, Conus
Pendant made lh>m Peoten shell ,
Pendant (fhigment), section of shell
Shell pendant '.
Shell pendant, made from Conus shells
Shell bead
Fragments of decorated pottery
Pottery ladle, toy
Pottery head, representing animal
Pottery disk, perforated; diameter, li Inches
Piece of red ooher, ftom room west of Father Font's room, Compound A
Fragment of cement
Quarts crystal
Piece of obsidian
Piece of fossil wood
Concretion
Flakes of jasper (1) and obsidian (2)
SmaU rubbing stone; 2^ x 1| Inches
Implement of wood, hoe; northwest court, Casa Grande; length, 19 inches
Implement of wood (part oO; northwest court, Casa Grande; length, 6} Inches. . .
Implement of wood; northwest court, Casa Grande; 7} z 2 inches
Implement of wood; northwest court, Casa Grande; 5x2 inches
Implement of wood; northwestoourt, Casa Grande; 8x2| inches
Implement of wood; northwest court, Casa Grande; height, 6 inches; diameter,
3) inches
Shell pendant ornament, Peotunculus; Mound 2, Group B, Casa Grande; diam-
eters, 1 1 and 2| inches
Shell pendant ornament, Turritella; length, 2f inches '.
Shell ear pendants: fragments; Pectunculus
Shell pendants. Conus
Conus shells, not worked
Fragment of decorated pottery
Fragment of pottery vessel; shallow dish; northwest room, Compound A. Casa
Grande; diameter, 4 inches
Piece of float copper, found tne in soil, 1906; north room of Casa Grande; 3| x 1
inches
Earthenware bowl, plain ware; height, 4 inches; diameter, 7} inches
Earthenirare bowl; interior has painted design; height, 4 inches; diameter, (^
inches !
Earthenware Ih>wI. compressed globular, plain ware; height, 4 inches; diameter.
5} inches
FEWKSS]
APPENDIX
165
Accession No, 4S762, Casa Grande, Arizona — Continued.
U.S.
Nat.
Mus.
No.
Bur.
Amer.
Eth.
No.
151
252161
252152
152
252153
153
252154
•
154
252155
155
252156
156
252157
157
252158
158
252159
159
252160
160
252161
161
252162
162
252163
163
252164
164
252165
166
252166
166
252167
167
252168
168
252169
160
252170
170
252171
171
252172
172
252173
173
252174
174
252175
175
252176
176
252177
177
252178
178
252179
179
252180
180
252181
181
252182
182
252183
183
252184
184
252185
185
252186
186
252187
187
252188
188
252189
189
252190
190
252191
191
252192
192
252193
103
252194
194
252195
195
252196
196
252197
197
252198
198
252199
199
252200
200
252201
201
ArticlM
Earthenware vase, compressed, globular body, short neck; height, 6 inches; diam-
• eter, 7 inches
Peetunculus shells, found in vase No. 282151
Small earthenware vase, containing small shells (Nassa), Conus shells, bits of
turquoise, deer tooth, etc.; diameter, 3^ inches; height, 2^ inches
Fragments of decorated pottery, various designs
.do.
Fragments of decorated pottery, various designs; fragment with swastika design.
Pottery disks, made firom broken vessels; diameters, 1| to 3 inches
Pottery disks, made from perforated vessels; diameters, 1 } to 2 inches
Fragments of {lottery, representing head of parrot
Fragments of pottery, representing animal head
Grooved stone ax; length, 7 inches
Grooved stone ax; length, 6} inches •
Polished stone implement, chisel(?); 7 x 1} x ( inches
Abrading implement, sandstone, squared edges; 6x2} x 1 Inches
Mealing stone; 5 x 3) x } inches
Stone implement; length, 3$ inches
Abrading implement, grooved surfaces; length, 2\ inclies
Abrading implement, tool sharpener (7); length, 3} inches
Stone implement; 4| x 3} x } Inches
Stone implement, polisher (?); 4} x 2} x | inches
Stone Implement; length, 4| inches; diameter, \ inch
Rubbing stone, with handle, tufa; diameter, 4} inches
Stone pestle (lava); length, 3} inches
Stone disk; diameter, 5 Inches; thickness, | Inch
Stone disk, partly perforated; diameter, 3} inches; thickness, i inch
Stone disk; i>erf(»iited; diameter, 2 inches; thickness, | inch
Stone implement, oval outline, thin flat iwbble; 3| x 2^ x f inches
Stone balls; diameters, 1} to 2) inches
Hoe, thin blade, chipped; length, 5| inches
Hoe, one edge showing wear; length, 6J inches
Hoe, one edge showing wear; length, 4| inches
Hoe, one edge showing wear; length, 5} inches
Concretion resembling grooved implement; length, 3 inches
Obsidian chips
Worked flake of obsidian; length, 2} Inches
Arrow-point, flint, triangular; length, 2\i inches
Arrow-points, flint, stemmed; lengths, 2J and l| inches ]
Perforator or drill, chalcedony; length, 1| inches; diameter, \ inch
Fragments of turquoise i
Turquoise beads *.
Piece of carved red Jasper (amulet) ,
Small water-worn pebbles of rare forms
Concretions, stone chips '
Quartz cr>'stals
Large shells (Cardium), unworked
Small shells, Peetunculus, unVorked |
Shells, Conus, unworked
Shells, Olivella, some worked i
Shell pendants, Turritella
Fragments of shell ear pendants made from sections of Peetunculus
Shell iiendants, Pecten
Lots
1
15
1
10
22
t
r
3
4
10
9
3
8
2
166
CASA GBANDE, ARIZONA
[bth. axn. 28
Accession No. 4S761, Casa Grande^ Arizona — Continued-.
U.S.
Nat.
Mas.
No.
Bur.
Amer.
Eth.
No.
252302
202
*252203
203
252204
204
2S220S
205
252206
206
262207
207
252206
208
252200
209
252210
210
252211
211
252212
212
252213
213
252214
214
252215
. 215
252216
216
252217
217
252218
218
252219
210
252220
220
252221
221
252222
222
252223
^23
252224
224
252225
225
252226
226
252227
227
252228
228
252229
229
2&2230
230
252231
231
252232
232
252233
233
252234
234
252235
235
252236
236
252237
237
252238
238
252239
239
252240
240
252241
241
252242
242
252243
243
252244
244
252245
245
252246
246
252247
247
252248
248
252249
249
252260
250
252251
251
252252
252
252253
253
252254
254
Articles
Shell beads< made from entire shells, Ni
Shell pendants, small Olycjrmeris
Bone perforator; len^, 4} Inches
Bone perforator, part of deer antler; length, 2i Inches
Tooth of deer..'. 1
Mass of vegetable substaaoe
P leoe of TOgetable substance
Fragment of fisbrlo made from vegetable fiber
Mealing stone for metate; 7} x 3i inches^
Mealing stone for metate ; 7) x 3} inches
Mealing stone for metate; 8 x 31 inches
Mealing stone for metate; 7 x3i Inches
Mealing stone for metate; 7 x 3| inches
Mealing stone for metate; 7} x 3i inches
Mealing stone for metate; 6 x 3| inches
Mealing stone for metate ; 5{ x 3| inches
Mealing stone for metate; 6 x 31 inches
Mealing stone for metate; 6f x 3f inches
Mealing stone for metate; 7} x 3| Inches
Mealing stone for metate; 7f x 4 inches
Mealing stone for metate; 5} x 3 iikches
Mealing stone for metate; 5} x 3i inches
Mealing stone for metate; 6x31 Inches
Mealing stone for metate; 6^ x 3} Inches
Mealing stone for metate; 5| x 3| inches
Mealing stone for metate; 6} x 3| inches
Mealing stone for metate; 5i x3| inches
Mealing stone for metate; 8x4 inches
Mealing stone for metate; 5x2} Inches
Broken mealing stones
Shallow paint mortar; 6^ x 2} inches
Stone mortar; diameter, 9f inches; height, 4) inches
Stone pestle (part of); height, 4} inches
Rubbing stone; 5x4 inches ,
Rubbing stone; 6 x 3| Inches
Rubbing stone; 4i x 2| inches
Rubbing stone; 4 x 3| inches
Rubbing stone; 4i x 3} inches
Rubbing stone; 4f x 2} inches
Hammer stones
Mealing stone (broken)
Stone disk; diameter, 3i inches
Rubbing stone, natural form; 6^ x 4} x 1 ^ inches
Rubbing stone; 8^x21 inches
Stone implement, pestle, expanding base; height, 2) inches .
Natural form resembling handled implement
Natural form resembling handled implement; 6^x7^ inches.
Flint cores or nuclei »
Chips of obsidian
Bits of turquoise
Small stone, polislied; length, 2} inches
Quartz crystals
Rounded pebbles, small
Ix>ts
12
2
3
6
7
1
3
2
FBWKB8]
APPENDIX
167
Accession No, 48761, Com Grandey -4n«ma— Continued.
U.S.
Nat.
Mus.
No.
Bur.
Amcr.
Eth.
No.
352256
256
2S2256
266
252257
267
262258
268
252250
259
252260
260
262261
261
252262
262
252263
263
262264
264
252265
265
252266
266
252267
267
252268
268
252260
269
252270
270
252271
271
252272
272
252273
273
252274
274
252276
275
262276
276
252277
277
262278
278
262279
279
262280
280
262281
281
252282
282
262283
283
252284
284
252286
285
252286
286
252287
287
262288
288
252289
289
252290
290
252291
291
252292
292
262293
293
262294
294
262295
295
252296
296
262297
297
252298
298
252299
299
252300
300
252301
301
252302
302
252303
303
252304
304
252305
306
252300
306
252307
307
Artides
Small pieces of mica
Shell, slightly worked, Pectunculus
Conus shells, unworked I
Shell pendants, Conus
Shell disk, drilled on edge for suspension; diameter. If inches
Fragments of shell pendants
Shell pendant; length, IJ inches
Shell pendants; small shells (Peoten)
Fragments of various shells
Spurs of fowl
Bone awl ; length , 41 inches
Bone needle; length, 2| inches
Fragments of painted pottery, handle of vase
Pottery disk made fh>m broken vase; diameter, 2 inches
Small baked clay vessel; diameter, If inches
Leg of tripod dish
Fragments of pottery showing various decorations
Long wooden hoe; length, 36 inches.
Long wooden hoe; length, 34 inches.
Long wooden hoe; length, 31 inches
Long wooden hoe ; length , 86| inches.
Wooden posts of beams, showing marks of stone-cutting tools
Mealing stone for metate; 81 by 3} inches
Mealing stone for metate; 8x3} Inches
Mealing stone for metate; 8| x 3| inches
Mealing stone for metate; 8x3} Inches
Mealing stone for metate; 7} x 3| inches
Mealing stone for metate; 6} x 3} inches
Mealing stone for metate; 6} x 4} inches
Mealing stone for metate; 5x3} inches
Mealing stone for metate; 6} x 3] Inches
Mealing stone for metate; 6} x 3 inches
Mealing stone for metate; 7} x 3 inches
Mealing stone for metate; 7} x 4 } inches
Mealing stone for metate; 7 x 3| inches ^
Mealing stone for metate; 6} x 3} inches
Mealing stone for metate; 5} x 3} inches
Mealing stone for metate; 6} x 3} baches
Mealing stone for metate; 6| x 2} inches
Small mortar; 6} x 3 J inches
Mortar; diameter, 11} inches; height, 7} inches
Mealing stone; 9} x 4 inches
Mealing stone; 8 x 3J inches
Mealing stone; 7} x 3| inches
Mealing stone; 8J x Scinches
Mealing stone; 7} x 3| inches
Mealing stone; 7} x 3} inches
Mealing stone; 6) x 3} inches
Mealing stone; 5} x 3i inches
Mealing stone; 6| x 3} inches
Mealing stone, recently worked edges; Of x2} Inches
Natural form ; 6 x 1 f x } Inches
Grooved stone ax, large ruin near Ftoraioe, Ariiona; length, 6} inches
Lots
2
1
6
6
170
GASA GBANDS, ABIZOKA
[BTR. ANN. 28
Aeeution No. 43761^ Com Grande, Arizona — Continued.
2S2410
252411
252412
252413
252414
252415
252416
252417
252418
252419
252420
252421
252422
252423
252424
252425
252426
252427
252428
252429
252430
252431
252432
262433
252434
262435
252436
252437
252438
252439
252440
252441
262442
262443
252444
262445
^52446
252447
252448
252449
252450
252451
252452
262453
252464
252455
252450
252457
252458
252459
252460
410
411
412
413
414
415
416
417
418
419
420
421
422
Chips and flakes of olwidiao
Small water-worn pebbles ,
Piece of chalky substance (paint)
Quarts crystal
Bit of turquoise
Concretions
Fragments of animal bones/ 2 pieces worked
Fragments of charred bones
Bone points, charred
Fragments of animal tooth (deer)
Fragments of shells, Venus; valves mora or less broken. . . .
Fragments of shells, Cardium; valves more or less broken .
Fragments of massive marine shell
423 ; Fragments of shell, Abalone
424 Fragments of shell, Strombus
425 I Fragments of charred shell ,
426 I Shells, Ck>nu5 j
427 I Shells, OUvella
428
429
430
431
432
433
434
435
436
437
438
439
440
441
442
443
444
445
446
447
448
449
450
451
452
453
454
455
456
457
458
459
460
Shells. Pecten, 1 valve
do
Shell pendant, drilled valve of Pecten
Fragments of pendants, section of Peotunculus
Charred seeds
Charred vegetable substance.
Charred com
Charred seeds
Jar containing earth and Nassa shells
Shaft or handle for stone implements; length, 17 Inches
Pottery disks, made from broken vases; diameters, 1} to 3i inches
Pottery disks, perforated (broken)
Fragments of large pottery disk, stamp markings
Fragments of pottery dish, shallow
Part of pottery vase, angular outline, plain ware
do
Part of pottery vase, compressed globular.
Part of bowl
Part of vase, straight sides
Fragments of pottery bowl, polished black ware
Fragments of pottery vase, decoration in red and green
Handles of vases
Legs of tripod vases
Fragment of pottery bowl, hole near edge
Fragment of painted vase, showing coils on exterior
Fragment of pottery, white or pale yellow slip wash, hundreds of pieces, decorations
in black, large lot
Fragments of pottery, gray slip wash, black decorations
Fragments of pottery, pale yellow slip wash, decorations in black, with solid areas
of red
Fragments of pottery, pale yellow slip wash, decorations In red
Fragments of pottery, plain undecorated ware, large lot
Polishing stone; length, 2} inches; width, 1| inches
Rubbing stone (sandstone); 3 x 2^ 3r| inches
Rubbing stone (sandstone), part of
18
2
3
0
6
5
3
rswKss]
APPENDIX
171
Accession No. 48761, Casa Grande, Arizona — Continued.
U.S.
Nat.
Mas.
No.
Bur.
Ainsr.
Eth.
No.
252461
461
252402
462
252463
463
2S2464
464
252465
466
252466
466
252467
467
252466
468
252469
460
252470
470
252471
471
252472
472
252473
473
262474
474
252475
475
252476
476
Articles
Rubbing stone (sandstone), oval outline; length, 2f inches
Digging tool, large flake, oval outline; length, 6^ inches
Digging tool, large thin flake, iiregular outline; length, 6) inches
do
Digging tool, large thin flake, irregular outline; length, 5 inches
Fragments of large marine shell, charred
Fragment of large marine shell
Fragments of shells, some showing use as paint oups
Fragment of pendant, section of Pectunculus
Mass of charred com
Charred seeds
Piece of adobe showing impression of reeds
Implement of wood (part oO; length, 6| inches
Painted pottery bowl, with bits of shell, modem ware; diameter, 4| inches
Painted pottery vase, with glass beads, modem ware; length, 2i inches
Qambling sticks, modem
Lou
Accession No. 49619, Casa Grande, Arizona
254301
1
254302
2-
254303
8
254304
4
254306
6
254306
6
254307
7
264308
8
254300
0
254310
10
264311
11
254312
12
254313
13
254314
14
254315
15
254316
16
254317
17
254318
18
254310
19
254320
20
254321
21
254322
22
254323
23
254324
24
254325
25
254326
26
254327
27
254328
28
254320
'^»
254330
30
254331
31
254332
32
Large unflnished stone ax, natural form, showing shapbig process of grooving and
surfacing by pecking; 12 z 3^ x 4 inches
Orooved stone ax, interrapted groove
Grooved stone ax, interrapted groove
Orooved stone ax, interrapted groove
Orooved stone ax, interrapted groove
Orooved stone ax, interrapted groove
Orooved stone ax, interrapted groove
Orooved stone ax, interrapted groove
Orooved stone ax, interrapted groove
Orooved stone ax, interrapted groove
Orooved stone ax, interrapted groove
Orooved stone ax, interrapted groove
Orooved stone ax, interrapted groove
Orooved stone ax, interrapted groove
Orooved stone ax, interrapted groove
Orooved stone ax, interrapted groove
Orooved stone ax, interrapted groove
Orooved stone ax, Interrapted groove
8 X 3 X 2| inches . .
7| X 2^ X 1^ inches.
7 X 2| X ll inches. .
7x2ixlflnche8..
6f X 2} X 2i inches.
6i X 2} X 2 inches. .
5} X 3 X 2i inches. .
5^x21 xH inches.
6 X 2^ X 2i inches. .
6x2^x2 inches...
6x2^x2 inches...
6i X 2^ X 1} inches.
5Kx2ixli inches
6ix2}xl|inches.
6 x2ixl} Inches..
5x2ixl|inches..
4ixUxli inches.
3ix2ixl} inches.
Orooved stone ax, interrapted groove;
Orooved stone ax, doublo*bitten encircling groove; 6 x 31 x 1} inches.
Broken ax blade, upper portion roughened; 3 x 2 x li inches
Orooved stone hammer or sledge; 8 x 3 x 2| inches
Orooved stone hammer or sledge; 7 x3 x 2i inches
Orooved stone hammer; 6i x 2 x 1^ inches
Orooved stone hanmier; 5 x 2} x 1) inches
Orooved stone hammer; 4} x 3} x 2 inches
Orooved stone hammer; 4| x 2} x If inches
Orooved stone hammer; 4 x 21 x 2} inches
Orooved stone hammer; 3} x 2i x 1} inches
Orooved stone hammer; 3 i x 2 x f inches
Orooved stone hammer (broken) ; 4} x 3 x 2| inches
Orooved stone hammer ( broken) ; 4} x 2 i x 1 i inches
172
CASA QBANDE, ARIZONA
[■TH. ANN. 28
Accemon No. 49619, Can Grande, Arizona — Continued.
254333
254334
254335
254336
254337
33
34
35
3d
37
254338
38
254339
39
254340
40
254341
41
254342
42
254343
43
254344
44
254345
45
254346
46
254347
•
47
254348
48
254340
49
254350
50
264351
51
254352
52
254353
53
254354
54
254355
55
254356
56
254357
57
254358
68
254359
59
254360
60
254361
61
254362
62
Hammer stone, cylindrical; 4} x 2i x 2 Inches
Hammer stone, roughly spheroidal; diameter, 3| inches '
Hammer and rubbing stone; 3) x 2} x 1) inches
Hammer stone, square, with rounded isdgfia; diameter. 2 inches i
Rubbing stone; 3 i x If x 1 inches
Paint muller, conical outline; length, 3 inches; diameter, 1} inches
Paint muller, conical outline; length, 3 Inches; diameter, 2\ inches
Chalcedony concretion; cylindrical outline, surfMesslightly polished by use; length, '
31 inches; diameter, 1} ioohes
Rubbhig stone for metate, having parallel edges with rounded ends (Utva); 8} x 3)
xli inches
Rubbing stone for metate, having parallel edges with rounded ends (basalt); 8x3]
xli inches
Rubbing stone for metate, having parallel edges with rounded ends (lava); 6} x 3} '
X If inches '
Rubbing stone for metate, having parallel edges with rounded ends (basalt); 7 x !
3|xli inches
Rubbing stone for metate, having parallel edges with rounded ends (basalt); 7 x
3|xl inches...*
Rubbing stone for metate, having parallel edges with rounded ends (basalt); 7} x '
3|xl inches
Rubbing stone for metate, having parallel sides, edge with rounded ends (basalt);
7x3^x1} inches |
Rubbing stone for metate, havli^ parallel sides, edge with rounded ends (basalt); i
6|x3xli inches |
Rubbing stone for metate, having parallel sides, edge with rounded ends (basalt): '
6} X 3} x 1 inches \
Rubbing stone for metate, having parallel sides, edge with rounded ends (basalt);
5| X 3i X li inches
Rubbing stone for metate, having parallel sides, edge with rounded ends (basalt);
6Jx3ixlJinchos
Rubbing stone for metate, having parallel sides, edge with ro^ded ends (basalt);
6Jx3ixlJ inches
Rubbing stone for metate, having parallel sides, edge with rounded ends (basalt);
5i X 3 X 1} inches |
Rubbing stone for metate, having parallel sides, edge with rounded ends (basalt); ,
5x3^x1} inches
Rubbing stone for metate, having parallel sides, edge with rounded ends (basalt); •
Si X 3} X Iflnches
Rubbing stone for metate, having parallel sides, edge with rounded ends (lava); ;
6ix3JxlJlnches '
Rubbing stone for metate, having parallel sides, edge with rounded ends (basalt);
6 x3ixli inches
Rubbing stone for metate, having parallel sides, edge with rounded ends (lava);
61 X 3} X 1 i inches
Rubbing stone for metate, having parallel sides, edge with rounded ends (lava);
4i x4xH{nohes
Rubbing stone for metate, having parallel sides, edge with rounded ends (basalt);
5} X 3} X H inches
Rubbing stone for metate, having parallel sides, edge with rounded ends (basalt);
6^ X 3} X 1 inches
Rubbing stone for metate, having parallel sides, edge with rounded ends (basalt);
8M 3^ X H inches
FBWKES]
APPENDIX
173
Accession No. 49619 , Casa Grande^ Arizona — Continued.
U.S.
Nat.
If us.
No.
Bur.
Amer.
Eth.
No.
254363
63
234364
64
254365
65
254366
66
264367
67
254368
68
254369
60
254370
70
254371
71
254372
72
254373
73
254374
74
254375
76
254376
76
2543n
264378
78
254370
70
254380
80
254381
81
254382
82
254383
83
254384
84
264385
85
254386
86
254387
87
254388
88
234380
80
254390
90
234301
01
254302
254393
03
254304
04
254306
05
254306
06
254307
07
254308
08
77
02
Articles
Rubbing stone for metate, having parallel sides, edge with rounded ends (lava);
7i X 3* xli Inches
Rubbing stone for metate, having parallel sides, edge with rounded ends (basalt);
7ix3ixU inches
Rubbing stone for metats, having parallel sides, edge with rounded ends (basalt);
8 xS^xU inches
Rubbing stone for metate, having parallel sides, edge with rounded ends (lava);
7 xS^xU inches
Rubbing stone for metate, having parallel sides, edge with rounded ends (basalt);
6ix3ixli Inches
Rubbing stone for metate, having parallel sides, edge with rounded ends (lava);
5x3x2}inche8
Rubbing stone for metate, having edge slightly curved (basalt); 5x3x1 Inches.
Rubbing stone for metate (basalt); Z\x2\x \\ inches
Rubbing stone, Irrogular outline; 6|x5xl Inches
Rubbing stone, natural form, semMunar outline; 6| x 3 x 1 inches
Orinding or polishing stone, rectangular outline; 4f x 3 x f Inches
Orinding or polishing stone, roddish sandstone; 3| x 3} x | inches
Orinding or polishing stone, approximately disklike, lava; 3 x 2^ x 1 inches
Rubbing hammer stone, natural form, approximately diakllke outline; diameter, 4
xli Inches
Mortar, large slab, with one slightly concave surfsoe, evidently used for grinding
pigments; 10} x 8} x 2i inches
Orinding stone, rectangular outline (sandstone); 6| x 4^ x H inches
Orinding stone, rectangular outline (sandstone); 4| x 4 x 1| inches
Orindingstone, rectangular outline (sandstone); 31x3 xliioohes
Orinding stone, rectangular outline (sandstone); showing narrow grooves, possibly
sharpening tool for wood and bone aw^; broken piece, 4 x 3| x 1} inches
Orinding stone (broken), sandstone; 4 x2i x liinohee
Orinding stone ( broken) , sandstone; 2i x 2 x } inches
Thin, irregularly shaped pieces, showing use for grinding pigments; 7i x 3 x |
inches
Thin, irregularly shaped pieces, showing use for grinding pigments; 6 x 4} x )
Inches
Thin, irregularly shi^jcd pieces, showing use for grinding pigments; 6} x 4 x |
Inches
Thin, irregularly^ shaped pieces, showing use for grinding pigments; 6 x 3 i x } hiches
Thin, irregularly shaped pieces, showing use forgrhiding pigments; 3 x 2 x i inches
Fragment of polishing stone; 2^ x 2| x f inches
Paint mortar, rectangular outline (sandstone); 6} x 4} x 1 inches
Irregularly shaped piece of sandstone, with pit in one surface, paint mortars; 5)
z 3 } X 1 } Inches
Irregularly shaped piece reddish sandstone, with pit in one surface, paint mor-
tar; 5x5x1} inches
Irregularly shaped stone with pit in one surface, basalt; 4} x 3| x 2} inches
Sharpening stone (?), thin slab, with depression in one surface; 6} x 4} x li inches
Small shallow mortar (7), rectangular outline with rounded ends, paint mortar; 6^
X 2} xli inches
Sharpening stone, irregularly shaped piece, with depressions on two surfaces; 6 x 3 x
{inches
Sharpening stone, irregularly shaped piece, with depressions In two surfaces; 6 x 2A
X linch
Small natural(?) form, with shallow depression; 2| z2 z i inches
I^ts
174
CA8A GRANDE, ARIZONA
[BTH. ANN. 28
Accession No. 49619 j Casa Grande, Arizona — Continued.
2S43Q0
2S4400
254401
254402
254403
254404
254405
254406
254407
254406
254409
254410
254411
254412
254413
254414
254415
254416
254417
254418
254410
254420
254421
121
254422
122
254423
123
254424
124
254426
125
254426
126
254427
127
254428
128
254429
129
254430
254431
254432
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
106
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
130
131
132
Stone mortar (lava), oval outline, mortar cavity, 1) Inches deep; 9 z 6x3} inches. .
Broken pitted stone (lava), pits in two sorfaoes; 3x3x1} Inches
Broken pitted stone (lava), disk outline; diameter, 3| Inches; thickness, 1} inches. .
Small, broken mortar, with hole in one edge; 1} x 2 inches
Grinding stone, irregularly shaped piece, with slight depression In one surfsoe; 5x1}
xl} inches
Sharpening stone, thin slab, with long, narrow grooves; 11 x 4^ x | Inches
Sharpening stone, thin slab, with long, narrow grooves; 3^ x 2 x } inches
Large stone slab, with depression in one surfiice made by grinding; the center has
been broken out, forming an oval aperture 5i X 3} inches
Natural form, conical outline, grinding stone; base diameter, 3} inches; height,
1 } inches
Natural form, conical outline, grinding stone; base diameter, 2} inches; height,
1} inches
Stone disk, one surface showing depressions as if for grinding or polishing; diame-
ter, 2} intdies; thickness, 1 inch
Rubbing stone, outline nearly square (tufa); 4^ x4 xl}inches
Rubbing stone, disk-shaped (part oOf tufa; diameter, 4} inches; thickness, U
inches
Rubbing stone, oval outline; 5} x 3} x 1} inches
Rubbing stone, disk-shaped; diameter, 4} inches; thickness, | inch
Rubbing stone, broken, oval; length, 3) inches; thickness, } inch
Rubbing stone, oval outline; 3} x 2) x 2 inches.
Rubbing stone, cylindrical (tufft); length, 2| inches; diameter, 1} inches
Fragment of stone ring, implement (lava)
Rubbing stone, oval outline (tufA); 6x4x1) inches
Rubbing stone, disk*8haped, with knob handle; diameter, 4 inches; height, 2
Inches.
Rubbing stone, disk-shaped (lava), incurved edge, convex base; diameter, 3}
inches; height, 1} inches
Rubbing stone, roughly shaped piece of tufa, with slight groove; length, 3} inches .
Roughly shaped carving, with animal head (?); height, 2} inches
Toy bowl; diameter, 1} inches; height, { inch
Digging implement, large, thin flake of stone, with one edge showing a polish
fh>m use; length, 9| Inches; width, 5^ inches; I inch thick at the back
Digging implement, large, thin flake of stone, with one edge showing a polish from
use; length, 8) inches; width 3 inches; i inch thick at the back
Digging implement, large, thin flake of stone, with one edge showing a polish from
use (broken); 6 inches wide; 4 x } Inch thick at the back
Digging Implement, large, thin flake of stone, with one edge showing a polish from
use; 6} inches wide; 4 x } inch thick at the back
Digging implement, large, thin flake of stone, vrlth one edge showing a polish from
use, on three sides; 6} inches wide; 4 x | Inch at the back
Digging implement, large, thin flake of stone with one edge showing a polish from
use; hoe, notched at upper end; length, 5} inches; width, 4| Inches; thickness.
}Inch
Digging implement, large, thin flake of stone, with one edge showing a polish from
use; hoe, notched at upper end; length, 6} Inches; width, 3 J inches; thickness,
} loch
DiggLig stone Implement, large, thin flake of stone with one edge shoeing a polish
firom use, or knife, semilunar shape; 6 inches; width, 3^ x } Inch
DIgginglmplement, hoe (see 124, above); length, 4 Inches; width, 3} Inches; thick-
ness at back, } Inch
F15WKB8]
APPENDIX
175
Accession No. 49619^ Casa Grande^ Arizona — Continued
U.S.
Nat.
Mas.
No.
Bnr.
Amer.
Bth.
No.
254433
133
254434
134
264435
135
254436
136
254437
137
254438
138
254439
139
'254440
140
254441
141
254442
142
264443
143
254444
144
254445
145
254446
146
254447
147
254448
148
254449
149
254450
160
254461
161
264462
162
254163
153
254464
164
264466
166
264456
166
^167
254467
254458 ; 168
254459 169
264460
160
254461
161
254462
162
254463
163
254464
164
254465
166
254466
166
254467
167
254468
168
254469
169
254470
170
254471
171
254472
172
254473
173
254474
174
264475
176
264476
176
254477
177
254478
178
254479
179
Articles
Digging implement (broken); 4}x3z|
Digging implement, boe (broken), notched; 3( x 3 x } inches
liong stone rubbing implement, with two edges, showing transverse grooyes (12),
section square with rounded edges; length, 11| inches; thickness, 1} Inches.
Stone pestle, cylindrical; length, 10 inches; diameter, 2\ inches
Stone pestle, roughly shaped; length, 12} inches; width, 3 x H inches
Stone pestle, roughly shaped; length, 15 inches; width, 2\ x 1} inch^
Natural form implement; length, %\ inches; width, 1| x | inch
Natural form whetstone; length, b\ inches; width, li x | inch
Natural form charm stone; 6| x 1} x 1 inches
Natural form charm stone, prism section; 4} x 1 x 1 Inches
Natural form charm stone; length, 4| inches
Natural form charm stone; length, 4} inches
Natural form charm stone; length, 3} inches; width, 1| inches
Natural form charm stone; 3| x 2 x ) inches
Natural form charm stone; 3| x f inches
Natural form charm stone; 3] x | inches
Natural form charm stone; 3 x f inches
Stone with longitudinal groove; artificial groove, } inch deep; 4} x 1} inches
Confr4haped piece of tufa, for drilling In shell; length, 2) inches; diameter, { Inch. .
Water-worn pebble, flat; 4 x 3 x i'lnches
Stone disk, thin; diameter, 3^ inches; thickness, \ inch
Stone dllk, thick; diameter, 2) inches; thickness, f inch
Thin pebble, oyal outline; length, 2| inches; width, 1| hiches; thickness, } inch
Stone carving, bird-shaped; length, 3} inches; height, 3} inches; width, 3| inches. . .
Stone carving, conventionalised female figure; length, 8f inches; width, 2% inches;
thickness, 1} inches.
Stone carving, lisard (?); mortar cavity on back for grinding pigments; length, 7|
inches; width, 4} inches; thickness, 1 inch
Stone carving, part of thin piece with three triangular indentations on one edge;
4ix4x finches
Ax-shaped stone, wiUi shallow groove; ends and edges with ground faces at differ-
ent angles; flat suriaces marked with incised lines; charm stone; length, 3)
inches; width, 2} inches; thickness, | inch
Stone balls used in games; diameters, 1 ln(^ to 2\ inches
(}oncretions more or less spheroidal; charm stones
Stone balls used In games; diameten, 1 Inch to 2^ inches
Stone concretions, charm stones
Natural pebbles (small)
Natural forms fragments of concretions, etc., charm stonra
Fragments of mineral
Fragments of mineral; turquoise
Obsidian cove and tbakea
Piece of ore, used as paint
Piece of ore, used as iiaint
Piece of ore, used as paint
Small water-worn obsidian pebbles
Piece of specular Iron, used for paint
Piece of red Jasper
Bits of red ocher
Stone flake
Flint flakes
Quarts crystals; charm stones
Lots
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
7
4
10
4
10
10
1
12
6
3
1
10
6
I
1
4
1
176
CASA OBANDE, ABIZONA
[■TH. ANN. 28
AccfMton No. 49619 1 Casa Grande^ Arizona — Continued.
U.S.
Nat.
Mus.
No.
Bar.
Amer.
Etta.
No.
234480
180
254481
181
2S4482
182
264483
183
254484
184
254485
254486
254487
254488
254489
254490
254491
254492
254403
254494
254495
254496
254497
254498
254499
254500
254501
254502
202
254503
203
254504
204
254605
205
254606
206
254507
207
254608
208
254509
209
254510
210
254511
211
254512
212
254513
213
254514
214
254515
215
254516
216
254517
217
254518
218
254519
219
254520
220
254621
221
Articles
Stone disks, spindle whorls, not perforated: diameter, 2^ inches; thickness, ^i^ Inch
Stone disks, spindle whorls, perforated; diameter, 2i x tV inch
Stone disks, spindle whoils, perforated; diameter, 1} x ^ inch
Stone disks, spindle whorls, perforated; diameter, U x t^ inch
Carved stone tablet (fragment), rectangular outline; upper surface with raised
border, ornamented with incised line design; magic tablet; length, 2 inches;
thickness, ^inoh
186 Carved stone tablet (fragment), rectangular outline; upper surface with raised
border, ornamented with Incised line design; magic tablet; length, 2 inches;
thiolcness, iioch
186 Arrow-point, triangular, flint; length, 2) Inches
187 Arrow-points, stemmed, flint; lengths, ] inch to 1| Inches
188 Arrow-points, triangular, obsidian; length,}lnch
189 Beads, stone 48, turquoise 72, and pendants (5), mainly turquoise ,
190 Stone pendant, cylindrical body with loop at one end; length, 1 } inches; diameter.
finch ,
191 Small cylindrical stone tapering at each end; length, 2 Inches; diameter, i inch
192 Stone bead, cylindrical; length, | inch; diameter, | inch
193 Stone pendant, claw-shaped; length, 1 inch
194 Small green stone disk; diameter, I inch; thickness, i inch
195 ' Copper bells
196 Perforated object of lava, irregular outline, use tmknown; 9x7x3 inches
197 Perforated object of lava, small; 4 x 3} x 1] Inches
198 Fragment of perforated object of lava; 3| x 2} x If inches
199 Fragnieats of asbestos
200 Natural form, slightly resembling worked stone object; charm-stone; 4 x 3 x 2^
inches
201 Natural form, slightly resembling worked stone object; charm-stone; 5 x 3| x 21
Inches
Natural form, slightly resembling worked stone object; charm-stone; 3 1 x 4 x 2}
inches
Natural form, slightly resembling worked stone object; chann-stooe; 3} x 3} x 1|
inches
Natural form, slightly resembling worked stone object; charm-stone; 3f x 3^ x 2
inches
Natural form, slightly resembling worked stone object; charm-stone; 3 x 3 x 1}
inches
206 ! Concretion (geode); 6x3x3} Inches.
Piece of adobe with perforation; 2 x 21 inches
Roughly worked stone implement; 4| x 3 x 2i inches
Roughly worked stone hammer; 4 x 2} x 2 Inches
Roughly worked stone implement
Flint flake; 3 x 2} x f inches
Piece of petrified wood; 2} x 1| x 1 inches
Water>wom pebble
Piece of galena.
Shell, Strombus; length, 7J inches
Shell; length, 8 Inches
Shell; length, 7 inches.
Shell; length, 6} inches
Shell ; length, 6 Inches
Shell, Murex; length, 5i inches
Shell, Hallotis; length, 7J inches
!x>t8
4
1
1
1
1
1
4
2
125
2
FBWKES]
APPENDIX
177
Accession Nd. 496i9y Casa Qrande, Arizona — Continued.
U.S.
Nat.
Mus.
No.
Bur.
Amer.
Eth.
Na
Articles
Lots
254522
254523
254524
254525
254526
254527
254528
254529
254530
254531
2545:12
254533
254534
254535
254536
254537
254538
254539
234540
254541
254542
254543
254544
254545
254546
254547
254548
254549
254550
254551
254552
254553
254554
254555
254556
254557
254558
254559
254560
254561
254562
254663
254564
264566
254666
254567
254668
264569
254670
254571
254572
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
2^4
X\&
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
267
258
269
260
261
262
263
264
266
266
267
Shell; length. b\ inchi>8 *. . .
Shell; length, 5 J Inches
Shell; length, 51 inches
Shell; length, 5 inches
Shell (broken); length, 4| inches
Shell (broken); length, 3J inches
Shell (broken); length, 34 inches
Shell (broken); length, 4} Inches
Shell; length, 4J inches
Shell; length, 4 J inches
Shell (broken); length, 3i inches
Shell, Pectuncnlus; diameter, 3^ inches
Shell, Pectunculus, slightly worked; diameter, 3} inches
Shell, Pectunculus, slightly worked; diameter. 2| inches
Shell, Pectunculus, slightly worked; diameter. 2 inches
Shell, Pectunculus, slightly worked; diameter, 2 Inches
Shell, Pectunculus, slightly worked; diameter, 1] inches
Shell, Pectunculus, perforated; diameter, 2\ inches
Shell, Pectunculus, perforated; diameter, 2} inches
Shell, Pectunculus, perforated; diameter, 2 Inches
Shell, Pectunculus, fragment, worked
Shell, Pectunculus, showing frog partly finished: diameter, 2} inches.
Siiell carving, frog, Pectimculus; diameter. 1 J Inches
Shell carving, pendant earring, Pectimculus; diameter, 2 inches
Shell carving, pendant earring, Pectunculus; diameter, 1 inch
Shell carving, pendant earring, Pectunculus; diameter, } inch
Shell pendant. Pectimculus; length, 1} inches
Shell ornament; length, 1 inch
Small shell, portly worked; length, \ Inch
Shell ring, incised decoration; diameter, } inch
Small shells, worked; lengths, i to f inch
Shell beads. Ollvella; lengths, | to ) inch
Shell beads, Dentalium; lengths, } inch to 1 Inch
Shell disk, naliotls; diameter, 1 Inch
Shell disk; diameter,} loch ^
Shell ornaments, ear pendants, Pectunculus shells
....do
2
3
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
Fragments of shell ornaments, ear pendants, Pectimculus shells; avenge diam-
eter, 2 i inches.
268 Shell ornament; length, 4} Inches
269 Shell ornament; length, 2| inches
270 Shell ornament (broken); length, 1| Inches. . *. ,
271 Shell ornament; length, 1} inches ,
272 Shell pendant made from Conus; lengths, i to !{ inches.
20903**— 28 ETH— 12 12
13
178
CASA QBANDEy ABIZONA
[eth. ANN. 28
Accession No. 49619, Casa Grande, Arizona— Continued.
U.S.
Nat.
Mus.
No.
Bur.
Amer.
Eth.
No.
254573
273
254574
274
254575
275
254576
276
254577
277
254578
278
254579
279
254580
280
254581
281
2545S2
282
254583
283
254584
284
254585
285
254586
286
254587
287
254588
288
254589
289
254590
290
254591
291
254592
292
254593
293
254594
294
264595
295
254596
296
254567
297
254598
298
254599
299
254600
300
254601
301
254602
302
254603
303
254604
304
254605
305
254606
254607
307
254608
308
254609
309
254610
310
254611
311
254612
312
254613
313
254614
314
254615
315
254616
316
254617
317
306
Artldes
Conus shells, mainly unworked; lengths, f to 2 inches:
Shell pendant; length, 2} Inches
Shell pendant; length, 2J inches
Shell pendant; length, 2 inches
Shell pendant; length, 2} inches
Shell pendant; length, 1} Inches
Fragments of shell
Animal bone; length, 2^ inches
2 fragments of Jawbones; lengths, 3 and 4} inches
Animal tooth
Bones of small animal
Bone awl; length, 5} inches
Bone awl; length, 6 J inches
Bone awl; length, 5^ Inches
Bone awl; length, 4 J Inches
Bone awl; length, 4 inches
Bone awl, 3 pieces
Bone whistle; length, 2i inches
Part of wooden implement; length, 6} inches
Put of wooden implement; length, 5} inches
Lots
10
..do.
Part of wooden implement; length, 7i inches
Paddle-shaped wooden implement; length, 8} inches
Basket tray; diameter, 14 inches .^
Corncob; length, 3J inches
Strips of fiber for basket work; bundle
Strips of fiber for weaving; bundle
Gourd< length, 14J inches
Earthenware bottle, rounded bottom, angular sides, wide mouth; height, 7} Inches;
diameter, 6^ inches
Earthenware Vase (broken), flat bottom, conical outline, looi>ed handle on one side;
height, 4} inches; diameter, 41 inches ! . .
Earthenware vase, globular body, wide mouth, handle looped on one side, painted
decorations, triangular designs in red; height, 4 inches; diameter, 4} inches
Earthenware pot (broken)^ plain ware; height, 3| inches; diameter, 4^ Inches
Earthenware Jar, angular outline, wide bottom tapering to mouth, plain ware;
height, 4^ inches; diameter, 8 inches '.
Earthenware pot (broken), globular body, plain ware; height, 3} inches; diameter,
5 inches.
Earthenware bowl, plain ware; height, 4 inches; diameter, 6} inches
Earthenware bowl, plain ware; height, 4 inches; diameter, 7^ inches
Earthenware Jar, flat bottom, nearly straight sides, wide mouth, plain ware; height,
6 inches; diameter at base, 5 inches
Fragments of bottle (restored)
Earthenware bowl, plain ware; heigh t,*3 inches; diameter, 5^ inches
Fragments of bottle
Earthenware ladle, plain ware; length, 8i inches; diameter, 5} inches; depth, 3
inches.
Earthenware ladle, plain ware; 6) x 4i x 3 inches.
Earthenware ladle, plain wwe; 4} x 3 x 1} Inches .
Earthenware ladle, plain ware; 3} x 2} x } inches
Earthenware ladle, plain ware; 3^ x 2 x } inches .
FXWKBS]
APPENDIX
179
Accession No. 49619, Casa Grande, Arizona — Continued.
U.S.
Nat.
Mus.
No.
Bar.
Amer.
Kth.
No.
254618
318
254619
319
254620
320
254621
321
254622
322
254623
323
254624
254625
254626
254627
254628
254629
254630
254631
254632
254633
254634
254635
254636
254637
254638
254639
254640
254641
254642
254643
254644
254646
254646
254647
254648
254649
254650
254661
254652
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
352
Earthenware bowl, exterior rod painted, Interior dark; diameter, 4 inches; height,
2 inches.
Earthenware bowl, plain ware; diameter, 3f incllps; height, 2\ Inches
Earthenware dish, tripod; diameter, 4 inches; height, 1} inches
Earthenware dish, tripod; diameter, 3^ inches; height, 2 inches
Earthenware dish, tripod; fragment, massive; length, 3^ Inches; height, 1} inches.
Earthenware bowl, conical outline, painted; interior black, exterior buff, with lino
and triangular decorations in red; diameter, 3} inches; height, 2 inches
Earthenware bowl, flat bottom, straight flaring sides; exterior reddish brown, in-
terior black, polished; diameter, 3} inches; height, \\ Inches
Earthenware bowl, decoration and outline ditto; diameter, 31 inches; height, 1^
Inches
Earthenware effigy vessel, bird form; length, 3} inches; body, 3 inches wide by 2}
inches high ,
Mass of adobe showing imprint of reeds; length, 4 inches; thickness, 2\ inches
Earthenware stand for holding roimd-bottom vessels; diameter, 2 inches; height,
1 J Inches
Legs of trii>od vases ,
Disks of pottery made from broken vessels; diameters, 1^ inches to 3} inches
Disks of pottery, perforated; diameters, 1 to 21 Inches
Earthenware spindle whorl, double convex outline; diameter, 1 \ Inches
...do
Earthenware spindle whorl, diuneter, 1} Inches
do
Earthenware pipe, tubular; 2i x 1 inches
Fragment of pottery vessel with bird's head
Fragment of pottery vessel, looped handle
do.
Fra^i^ent of ix>ttery, oUa.
Fragment of pottery; decorations in red
Fragment of pottery; nocks and rims of painted vessels, decorated in red
Fragment of i>ottery, ladle, gray with black decorations
Fragment of pottery, large vase, part of rim
Fragment of pottery, large bowl, interior decoration
Fragment of pottery, large bowl, interior decoration symbolic.
Fragment of pottery, large bowl, Interior decoration
Fragment of pottery, large olla, exterior decoration.
Fragment of pottery, bowl, interior decoration.
Fragment of pottery, showing luted handle,
do.
Fragment of pottery, with hole in one edge,
Lota
i:
M
ANTIQUITIES OF THE UPPER VERDE RIVER
AND WALNUT CREEK VALLEYS, ARIZONA
BY
JESSE WALTER FEWKES
/
181
ANTIQUITIES OF THE UPPER VERDE RIVER AND
WALNUT CREEK VALLEYS, ARIZONA
By Jesse Walter Fbwkes
INTRODUCTION
The following pages are more in the nature of a preliminary report
than an exhaustive account of the antiquities of the valleys of the
upper Verde River and Walnut Creek. This report deals with areas
little known archeologically, although, by reason of their geographic
positions, presenting to the student of the prehistoric culture of
Arizona most interesting problems. The aim is to consider types
rather than to enumerate many examples of the same kind of ruins.
The present discussion is confined for the greater part, though not
entirely, to architectural features.
The reader is reminded that the antiquities of these valleys have
not been wholly neglected by former students. Ruins beUeved to
be prehistojic were reported from the Verde many years ago, and
those on the lower Verde have been described monographically by
Mr. Cosmos Mindeleff .*
The antiquities of the region bordering the Verde River from
Camp Verde to the point where it discharges its waters into the Salt
naturally resemble those of the other tributaries of the latter, although
the geologic conditions on the upper Verde have led to certain
architectural differences. The locahty of the ruins here considered is
the western frontier of the ancient Pueblo country. The inliabitants
of this region, an agricultural people, were subject to attack by power-
ful nomadic tribes. Here, where defensive structures were necessary,
we should naturally look for a relatively large number of forts or for-
tified hilltops. The*upper Verde River and Walnut Creek flow through
a part of Arizona occupied to within a few years by the Yavapai,
a more or less nomadic tribe of mixed blood, who reasonably may be
regarded as descendants of the prehistoric house builders. Descend-
ants of other survivors of prehistoric times may be looked for among
several groups of modem Indians of Yuman stock — tlie Walapai and
the Havasupai, especially the latter, now living in the depths of
Cataract Canyon, a branch of the Grand Canyon of the Colorado,
1 In ISth Awn, Rep. Bur. Etknol.
185
186 ANTIQUITIES OF THE VEKDE AND WALNUT CREEK Ibth.ann.28
where they formerly were driven for protection. According to
Major Powell, these people have legends that their ancestors inhabited
villages and cliff-houses, and they claim to be descendants of the
aboriginal inhabitants of the cinder-^one dwellings near Flagstaff.
There is said to be a ruin north of Seligman, Arizona, which they
likewise claim as remains of a former home.
The records available constituting the written history of this
part of Yavapai County are not very extensive and shed little or no
light on .its archeology. Western Arizona was visited in 1583 by
Antonio de Espejo and was traversed nearly a quarter of a century
later by Juan de Ofiate, who penetrated as far as the mouth of the
Colorado River. Forty years before Espejo the explorer Alarcon
at the farthest point reached on his trip up the Colorado heard of stone
houses situated in the mountains to the east, and no doubt Father
Garcfe in 1776 visited some of these villages in his journey from the
Colorado to the Hopi villages. The routes of the early Spanish
explorers in this region have not yet been very accurately determined;
but it is probable that they made use of old Indian trails, one of
which ran from the Verde to the Colorado, followed Walnut Creek,
and went over Aztec Pass to the sources of the tributaries of the Santa
Maria and the Bill Williams River, which flow into the Colorado.
Although the accounts of these early travelers are vague, one fact
stands out in relief, namely, that the region was populated by Indian
tribes, some of whom were agriculturists and sedentary, who con-
structed stone houses of sufficient size- to attract the att^tion of the
explorers. But it was not until early American explorers visited the
Southwest that knowledge of this region took more definite form.
The Government reports of Sitgreaves in 1853, of Whipple and others
in 1853-1854, and of the Wheeler Survey in the 70's drew attention
to the ruins, and the estabUshment by the War Department of a
fort on the Verde (moved in 1861 to a near-by site and abandoned in
1891) opened tliis interesting region to students of archeology con-
nected with the Army. The presence of the camp at Fort Huala-
pai seems to have led to no scientific results so far as archeology is
concerned, altliough situated in the midst of a valley containing
many ruins.*
■
I Consult the following:
Sitgreaves, L., Report of an Expedition down the Zufil and Colorado Kivers. Srn. Ex. Doc. 59, 32d
Cong., 2d sess., Washhigton, 1853.
Ueports of Explorations and Surveys . . . from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean, yol. ni,
Washington, 1856. ("Whipple Survey.") ^
U. S. Geographical Surveys of the Territory of the United States West of the 100th Meridian. Annual
Reports, Washington, 1875-78. (" Wheeler Survey.")
Hoffman, Walter J., Miscellaneous Ethnographic Observations on Indians Inhabiting Nevada, Califor-
nia. and Arizona. In Tenth Ann. Rep. Hayden Survey, Washington, 1878.
Mearns, Edgar A., Ancient Dwellings of the Rio Verde Valley. In Pop. 8ci. Mo., xxxvn, New York,
Oct., 1890.
F AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY TWENTY-EIGHTH ANNUAL BEPOftT PLATE 79
MONTEZUMA CASTLE (ABOVE) AND OUTLET OF MONTEZUMA WELL
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOOY TWENTV-EIQMTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE BO
MONTEZUMA WELL
PKWKBsj BUINS ON THE UPPEB VEBDE BIVEB 187
The buildings herein considered have few points of likeness to New
Mexican pueblos;^ in details they are more nearly related to the ruins
of habitations called jacales, on the Gila and its tributaries. The
forts or fortified hilltops suggest the trincheras of Sonora and Chi-
huahua, in northwestern Mexico, and present architectural features
distinguishing this type from true pueblos of New Mexico, Colorado,
northern Arizona, and Utah, the fort or fortified hilltop being a
southern and western rather than a northern and eastern type of
structure.
Comparison of the ruins along the upper Verde with those on
or near Walnut Creek shows clearly the influence of environment
on human habitations. In the former region cliff-dwellings and
cave habitations predominate, the latter because they could be
easily excavated in the soft rock, whereas in the Walnut Creek
basin the formations consist of granite and basalt. The con-
struction of cliff-houses or cave-dwellings here being impossible,
they are replaced by forts. Judging from the size and number of
tliese forts, the conflicts between the inhabitants and the hostile
tribes must have been severe.
RUINS ON THE UPPER VERDE RIVER
All evidence indicates that the upper part of the Verde Basin,
like the middle and lower sections, had a considerable aboriginal
population in prehistoric times. The valleys of the tributaries of
the Verde also show evidences of former occupancy, almost every
high hill being crowned by a ruin. The walls of some of these struc-
tures are still intact, but most of them are broken down, although not
to so great an extent that the ground plan of the rooms can not
be fairlv well traced. Manv river terraces, or elevated river banks,
where apiculture was possible, are the sites of extensive ruins, as
indicated bv rows of foundation stones.
The most important and typical ruins along the middle Verde
are Montezuma Castle and the aboriginal shrine, Montezuma Well,
which are so well known that the author has merely introduced
illrstrations (pis. 79, 80) of them for comparative purposes.
The present record of unpublished studies begins with the con-
sideration of cave-dwellings at the mouth of Oak Creek, from an
archeologic point of view one of the least known groups of cave-
dwellin(]:s in the Verde Vallev.
1 The author has repeatedly pointed out a distinction between the type of nxin called jacales, char-
acteristic of southern and western Arizona, and that known to archeologists as "pueUos," so abundant in
New Mexii^.
188 ANTIQUITIES OF THE VERDE AND WALNUT CREEK [bth. ann. 28
Ruins at the Mouth of Oak Creek
The cavate rooms (pis. 81-84) in the bluff overiooking Oak Creek
are good examples of cave domiciles artificially excavated in cliffs.
Tliis cluster of rooms, accompanied by a building above, is situated
in the angle formed by Oak Creek and the Verde, about 50 yards
from the Comville- Verde road, having a wide outlook across the
valleys of both streams. Although not so extensive as the cavate
lodges found lower down the Verde, and somewhat smaller than
most similar caves in the Rio Grande region, this cluster is repre-
sentative of Verde Valley cavate lodges.
The rock of which the bluff is composed is a friable tufaceous
formation, superficially much eroded by weathering. This rock is so
soft that it could be readily worked with stone implements, as shown
by certain peckings on the vault of the roof and on the walls of the
rooms. Judging from tlie nature of the rock, it is probable that the
face of the bluff above the river has been worn away considerably
since the caves were deserted; the front walls have changed somewhat
even in modem tunes.
Although these artificial caves have been known for some time,
especially to people living in the vicinity, little detailed study has
been given to them by archeologists. In his report on the lower
Verde ruins, Mindeleff does not mention or figure them, and they are
not discussed in other accounts. In 1898 the present author directed
attention to the interesting character of these caves.'
A marked feature of cavate rooms in Arizona^ is the almost unex-
ceptional association with them of buildings constructed on the talus
at their bases or on the mesa above them. Associated with the Oak
Creek caves, as with the cavate dwellings of Clear Creek, lower down
the Verde, there is a building (pi. 81) on the mesa above but none
on the talus below. Although at present much broken down, tliis
buUding presents strong indication of long habitation and is believed
to have been occupied contemporaneously with the caves below, pos-
sibly by the same clans.
If the cavate rooms and the pueblo on the mesa were inhabited
synchronously, the suggestion naturally occurs that they may have
had two distinct uses: possibly one was for ceremonial, the other
for secular, purposes; or one was for storage of food and the other
for dwelling purposes. The author inclines to the belief that each
of these two types was devoted to a distinct use, but he is unable
definitely to substantiate this hypothesis. The ruin (pi. 81) on top
of the bluff overlooking Oak Creek was an extensive village resem-
bling a pueblo; some of its walls are well preserved. One can hardly
^ In 17th Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol.
> Similar caves found on Clear Creek resemble in gieneral those on Oak Creek, and there is no reason to
doubt the tribcd identity of the inhabitants of the two localities.
TWEN TV-EIGHTH A
E BLUFF ABOVE 0
b. OAK CREEK CAVES
RUINS AT THE MOUTH OF OAK CREEK
I, MIDDLE SERIES
CAVATE ROOMS OVERLOOKING OAK CREEK
nivKBBl BUINS ON THE UPPER VERDE RIVER 189
suppose this structure to have been inh&bited by people hostile to
those occupying the cliffs below, nor is it reasouable to regard its
walla OS of a later or an earlier period of construction. It is known
that a division of rooms into klvas and living quarters is a constant
feature in moat modem, and in some ajicient, pueblos.' Possibly
there was a corresponding duality in this cluster, ihe cavate lodges
and the pueblo on the bluff having different functions.
While most of the walls of the Oak Creek pueblo have fallen, a
few of the rooms are fairly well preserved. These are situated on the
south side, rising from the rim of the precipitous bluff ; the descent
plan ol poebki on bluff overlooking O
on the north side is more gradual. An examination of the ground
plan (fig. 56) shows that the total length (measured east and west)
is 231 feet and the breadth 135 feet. Most of the rooms are fairly
lai^; their walls are of undressed reddish-colored stones, bearing evi-
dences that they were formerly plastered. The highest wall still
standing is about 20 feet, while several walls are 15 feet, in height.
The positions of projecting floor beams and of apertures which for-
merly received such beams indicate that the structure in its highest
part originally contained three stories and was a pueblo.*
■ It la known thM there ue do olreuliu klTu la Verde rulna, and the noUngulv oeremonbl rooms
(JtUai) Id this vallar have not jtt been dtflenDIUted from hebltatlODB.
■ A. pueblo Is a compact communltr buUdlogi leDeraUr more than two itories high and l«inuied, the
(lories aboTS the first havinc lateral entrancefi.
190 ANTIQUITIES OF THE VEBDE AND WALNUT CBEEK [vru. ann. 28
In all the outlines of rooms that have been traced there are no
evidences of kivas (subterranean chambers specialized for ceremonial
purposes), but at the northwestern comer, outside the walls, is a
circular depression suggesting a former reservoir. Viewed from
below or from the left bank of Oak Creek, the ruin with the line of
cavate rooms beneath and the wall of the pueblo crowning the bluff
forms a striking picture, as shown in the accompanying illustrations
(pis. 81, 6; 82). The caves below — that is, the rooms excavated in the
side of the bluff — will be considered j&rst.
The openings into these cavate lodges appear at two levels, those in
the lower row being the more numerous. The front wall of the upper
row has been almost completely destroyed by the elements. Three
sections may be distinguished in the lower or main line of cavate
rooms — ^western, middle, and eastern. While in general style of con-
struction the rooms of all three sections are similar, the chambers
vary to so great an extent in size, depth to which excavated, and in
other particulars as to suggest that they were used for different pur-
poses. The rooms of the western end (pi. 83), which are larger than
those of the other two sections, are more easily approached. The
cluster of rooms at the eastern end (pis. 83, 84) can not be entered
from the others, but is approached by cUmbing the bluff (pi. 84) above
the Cornville road. The broken openings of the western and middle
sections face southward beyond Oak Creek, while those at the east
face more toward the east.
In order to comprehend more fully the character of the site of these
excavated rooms, let us consider a high cUff or bluff (pis. 83, 84) with
a river flowing along its base, bordering which is a low talus of
fallen stones, the d6bris from the wall above. From the top of
this talus to the level of the floors of the cavate rooms is about 15
feet. The pathway follows a low bench in the cliff a few feet below the
floor level, at too great a distance, however, for one to dimb to the
rooms, except at two points. Viewed from a level place across the
creek the Unes of cavate rooms appear as rows of irregularly shaped
holes in the side of the cliff (pi. 81, 6). The jagged openings indicate
former entrances of caves artificially excavated in the rock, the marks
of the workers' took being visible on the walls.
'The average depth to which these caves are excavated is 20 feet,
and the whole length of the western and middle parts is about 207
feet, the former being 183 feet and the latter 24 feet. Attention is
drawn to the fact that each of the 10 rooms composing the western
series of cavate rooms is rudely circular or oval in form, none of
the corners forming right angles. The floors of most of the rooms
are approximately on the same level; their, roofs are formed by
the roof of the cavity, while the partitions consist of walls of the
niFnsl BUINS ON THE UTPER VEBDB BIVEB 191
rock left in place. There was evidently once a passageway (pi. 83, b)
along the ledges in front of the line of entrances into the cavate
rooms, and it likewise appears that many walls formerly closed the
fronts, whose positions are now indicated by great jagged apertures.
While only fragments of these front walls remain, it appears from
one (in the middle series) still standing (pi. 81, b) that walls of this
kind formerly extended along the whole length, from floor to roof,
and were pierced for entrance.
There is no evidence that a building once stood on the talus in front
of this hne of cavate lodges (pi. 83, 6), as found in connection with
some similar habitations. The situation of the caves with relation
to the cliff above would seem to afford evidence against such sup-
Fia. 66. around plan ol cave rooms on Oak Creek (weitem end aad middle).
position. It is doubtful also whether there were any rooms on the
river bank, which was flooded regularly at high water.
The rooms of the western and middle series of Oak Creek-caves are
indicated on the ground plan (fig. 56) by the letters A-M. East of
r6om J the partition separating the rooms of the western series from
those of the middle series approaches so close to the edge of the cliff
that it is impossible to pass around it from one room to another. The
entrance to this series of rooms hes at the point A; the aperture is small
and bounded by broken walls (pis. 81, b; 83, b). Once on the ledge,
however, one can walk on aprojection the whole distance from room A
to room J without inconvenience, passing through many connecting
passages. Room B, which is somewhat more spacious than A, has in
one comer a small closet or niche; in C there are twoof these niches, once
used for containing food or water. No sign of front walls appears in
192 ANTIQUITIES OF THE VEBDB! AND WALNUT CBEEK Lbth. ann. 28
A, By or C. Room D is now, as it probably always has been, really an
arched passageway ; in its floor is a mortar-like depression in which pos-
sibly grain may have been pounded. A solid rock support left by the
prehistoric workman, in front of this arched passage, shows on its
sides the marks of the builder's stone tools. Room E was apparently
an open area, perhaps a recess or court rather than a living room,
and, as there are no signs of a front wall, probably served as a porch
for room F. At the edge of this porch is a shallow groove cut in the
floor, extending at right angles to the edge of the cliff, in which it
may be supposed the ancients rested their weapons before they
discharged them at the enemy below.* The front wall of room F is
well preserved, makmg this room the best in condition in the western
series; it has a window and a closet, or niche, in the rear. The
pear-shaped passageway into the adjoining room (G) is cut through
a soUd rock partition, the opening being just large enough for the
passage of the human body. The remaining rooms (G, H, I, J),
which are open in front, are comparatively large. There is an
elevation in the floor forming a platform between rooms F and
G, which may be Ukened to the banquettes in some other cavate
lodges.
The middle series of cavate lodges at Oak Creek has three rooms
(K, L, M); these are merely a continuation of the western series
from which the room first mentioned (K) is separated by undisturbed
rock* This room is almost circular in shape; the curve of the roof
extends from the highest point (about 6 feet), in the middle, to the
floor. The distance on the floor across the broken entrance (there is
no front wall) measures 1 1 feet, and from the face of the cliff to the
rear wall 15 feet. The surface of the floor, composed of the natural
stone considerably worn, is smooth, almost polished. There are three
small niches in the rear of the room, the bottoms of wluch are slightly
below the floor level.
Room L is the only one in the middle series retaining a remnant of
the front wall that once closed the entrances of these caves. The
distance from this wall to the rear wall is 10 feet, the width of the
entrance 14^ feet, and the height of the room 5 to 7 feet. There
are two niches in the rear of this room and a shallow groove on
the ledge in front, which projects beyond the wall at right angles to
its length. Here also are two circular shallow depressions in the rock
floor that might have been used as mortars for pounding com or other
seeds.
The doorways or passages between rooms L and K and L and M
apparently remain in about the same condition as when the rooms
> Similar grooves are found on tbe East Mesa of the Hopi, overlooking the trail near Hano, which early
warriors are said to have used for the same purpose.
FwntMj EUIN8 ON THE UPPEB VBBDB EIVEB 193
were iohabited. Koom M has one small niche and two large niches;
the open front shows no vestige of masonry.
Excavated in the northeastern comer (pi, 84) of the bluff, some-
what to the east of the middle series of rooms and separated therefrom
by an impassable cliff, are the eastern caves, which open toward the
east, overlookii^ the Cornville-Verde road and Oak Creek. There
are but three rooms (N, O, P) in this cluster (fig. 57). Room N
facee more to the southward than the remainder. This room is irr^.
iilar in shape. The rear wall is 21 feet from the edge of the cliff at
the floor level ; the dome-shaped roof, which is blackened with smoke,
slopes imiformly backward, the highest point being near the entrance;
the average height is 5 feet. A peephole cut through the rock par-
tition looks out over Oak Creek, on the southern side. One of the
walls contains a niche. Room N opens into rooms O and F. Tlie
Pio. ST. Oround plui of rare rooma on Osk Cresk (eulam end).
former is about 8 feet high; this can be entered by a passt^eway
from front and side. The joof is vaulted; the floor on the north side
is sightly raised. Passage through the narrow opening from one of
these rooms to another can be effected only by crawling on all fours.
Room P has a vaulted roof, averaging 7 feet in height; there are two
niches at the floor level, the openings of which are pear-shaped.
In their general features the Oak Creek cavate lodges,' as shown in
the preceding paragraphs, are not unlike structures of similar char-
acter in the Verde Valley. They closely resemble inhabited caves in
various parts of the world, excavated in similar rock formations by
people of the Stone Age.
I No Miffldsnt rMUOD to reject the word "cavitte" occura lo the writer nor does he know oT uiy better
lenn that bu been suggeated b; Ibose who object lo Its use to dealgiule caT« of thli type. Uoat at thesn
artlAdal cavea are lOiinid la dilla and may bo pcoporl; caUe'd clia.dwelllngi, eapecUUy tboee wbicb taxe
buildings In front of them. The; undoubtedly grade Into other typea, » natuial eavm having bouses
buUtin Ibam, but tha term is the mast exproaslva yet suggealed Inr cUS-roama aillBclall)' excavated.
20903"— 28 BTH— 12 ^13
194 ANTIQUITIES OF THE VEBDE AND WALNUT CBEEK [ith. axn. 28
Cliff-houses of the Bed Rooks
The cavate rooms of Oak* Creek here described and illustrated
are not the only form of cliff-dwellings in the upper Verde region.
We find there also walled houses built in caves or in recesses pro-
tected by an overhang of the cliff, in which little or no artificial
excavation is apparent. The largest known cliff-houses of this type
along the upper Verde are situated in the Ked Kocks, which can
easily be seen across the valley from Jerome, Arizona. The geologic
character of these rocks and the peculiar structure of the caves in
which they occur impart to these cUff-houses a form resembling the
cUff-dwellings of the Navaho National Monument in northern Arizona,
the characteristic feature being that the rear wall and in some cases
the side walls of the rooms consist of the cave wall. The latter walls
are built so that their ends join the rear wall of the cave, imlike
pueblos, which are independent of cUffs for support so far as lateral
walls are concerned. This type, like the ledge-houses in the Mesa Verde
National Park, Colorado, forms a connecting link between cavate
lodges and cliff-dwellings, the essential differences being that the
former are artificial excavations while the latter are constructed in
natiu'al caves.^ In some of the rooms of cliff-houses of the most
independent construction, the walls of the cliff constitute rear or side
walls of the dwellings, so this feature can hardly be said to indicate any
cultural difference; it is rather an expression of geologic environment,
a difference that is worth consideration and may be convenient in
classification.
The aboriginal habitations discovered by the author in 1895 in
the Bed Rocks ' belong to the type of cliff-houses rather than to that
called cavate lodges, the latter being represented on Oak and Clear
Creeks.
Some of the smaller cliff-houses on the upper Verde and its tribu-
taries have a characteristic form, approximating more closely those
in Walnut Canyon, near Flagstaff, than' they do those of the San
Juan drainage.' This difference is due largely to the character of the
rock formation and the erosion of the cliffs in which the first-men-
tioned dwellings are situated, but is also in part traceable to the com-
position of the clans that once inhabited them.
In Montezuma Castle (pi. 79), the typical cUff-dwelling in the Verde
Valley, there are a main building and several smaller houses, which
are duplicated on the Sycamore and other tributaries of the upper
Verde.
1 Several of the Verde clifl-dwellings are simply natural caves whose entrances have been at least par-
tially walled up. The ex temal differences between these and artificial caves closed by a front wall are too
slight perhaps to be considered. The method of formation of the cave, whether by nature or by artificial
means, Is more Important as a means of classification.
s See ink Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. EOmol.
s The author regards these as closely related to the ledge-houses of the Mesa Verde, although exteriorly
they are dosely allied to cavate lodges and may be situated in artifldaUy excavated caves.
rawKBs] BUIN8 ON THE UPPEB YEBDE BIVEB 195
The cliff-<iwelling8 of the Red Rocks, built as they are in a rock
formation different from that in which Montezuma Castle ia situated,
have certain architectural dissimilarities which are evident from com-
parison of the illustrations.
Honanki and Palatki, the principal cUff-houses in the Red Rocks,
may be visited from Jerome, Arizona, by a more direct road than that
from Flagstaff. This road passes through the valley settlements to
'Cottonwood, near which place it crosses the river. Above and just
beyond a ford there are low mesas on which are situated ruins/ the
walls of which can be seen from the crossing. (PL 89.) From the
ford the road is fairly good as far as Windmill ranch, and thence is
passable with wagons to Black's ranch, at the mouth of one of the
canyons of the Red Rocks. As there is always water in this canyon,
the mouth of which hes midway between Honanki and Palatki, a
short distance from each, it is a favorable place for a permanent
camp. The canyons in which the two ruins are situated are waterless.
Several small cUff-houses are found in this and neighboring canyons,
and there are many caves showing evidences of former occupancy as
mescal camps by Apache or others, but the main interest centers in
Honanki and Palatki, the largest cUff-houses yet discovered in the
Verde region with the possible exception of Montezuma Castle.
As already stated, it is evident that the character of the rock of
the cave in which these two great ruins are situated id different from
that in which Montezuma Castle stands. Like the latter, the small
cliff-house in Sycamore Canyon is literally built in a recess in the
cliffs, the roof of the houses being a short distance below the roof of
the cavity.' In Honanki and Palatki, however, the opening is large
and more in the nature of a cavern with a slight overhanging roof
high above the tallest building. In these ruins there is no refuse,
heap back of the inner rooms, the wall of the precipice serving as the
rear wall of the room.
The cliff-dwellings of the Red Rocks are more closely related archi-
tecturally to those of the Navaho National Monument,' in northern
Arizona, than to Montezuma Castle. They differ also from the ruin
at Jordan's ranch, which is in reality a ledge-ruin, being built in
a natural cave following the line of softer rock strata, having the
front closed by an artificial wall extending from base to roof.*
The two ruins, Honanki and Palatki, discovered by the author in
1895, were the first cliff-dwellings in this part of the Verde region
made known to science.^ At that time photographs of these ruins were
1 There are two nilns on the mesa above this ford, on the left bank of the river. These can be seen from
Jerome with the aid of a field glass,
s The author has not yet determined whether the cave at Motntezuma Castle is wholly natural.
* See BitU. SO, Bwr, A mer, Ethnol.
* Several ruins of this type occur in the rock under Montesuma Castle; the ruins in Walnut Canyon,
near Flagstaff, also ))clong to this type.
^inh Ann, Rep. Bur. Anur. Ethnol.
196 ANTIQUITIES OP THE VE^DE AND WALNUT CBEEE [rra.iHn.SS
published, sccompanied by descriptions of the various rooms and
minor antiquities. The author adda here but little to his former
description of the ruins, but has introduced better ground plans (figs.
58, 59) of them than any yet published. Although reports of ruins
Fio. IB. around pUn of PalMU.
much larger than these of the Red Rocks, situated higher up on the
Verde, were brought to the author in 1895, he is convinced that there
is but slight foundation for them. There are undoubtedly several
small clifi-houses and many natural caves, as "Robber's Roost,"
yia. M. Grounil plan al
in the Red Rocks, but no cliff-dwellings of great size are to be found
between the Red Rocks and the Chino Valley. Palatki (pis. 85 ; 86, a)
lies in the canyon east of Black's ranch, a short distance therefrom,
and Honanki about the same distance to the west.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN
RUIN BELOW MARX'S RANCH (ABOVE), AND PALATKI
198 . ANTIQUITIES OF THE VEBDE AND WALNUT CBEEK [bth. awk. 28
of stone, but there are also fragments of adobe walls and sections of
plastered clay floors adhering to the ledge and adjacent parts of the
bowlder. As before stated, between cliff and bowlder is a crevice once
bridged by the buildings. Two or three beams project from the top
of the bowlder opposite the ledge, indicating that the space between
the bowlder and the sides of the cliff was formerly floored or roofed,
the ends of the supporting beams resting on the bowlder and the ledge.
This floor was evidently supported in part by a stone wall built in the
crevice, remains of which are shown in the ground plan. Possibly
this wall formerly served as a partition between two small basal
rooms occupying the crevice, the remaining walls of which are no
longer traceable.
A row of shallow pits cut in the surface and sides of the bowlder
occupy approximately the position indicated in fig. 60; these served
as footholds and apparently furnished the only means by which the
inhabitants of this building could gain access thereto.
Leboe-houses neab Jordan's Ranch
The small cliff-dwellings near Jordan's ranch, about 6 miles from
Jerome, belong to the type known as ledge-ruins, i. e., natural caves
of small extent having the fronts closed by walls of masonry. There
are several similar ledge-ruins in the valley, but the Jordan ruins are
probably the best presQrved. Several ruins of this type are found in
the cliffs below Montezuma Castle, as shown in plate 79. ^
The Jordan ruins are situated in the cliffs on the right bank of the
Verde about 50 feet above the river bottom and can be reached
by an easy climb over fallen stones. There are several ledge-houses in
this locality, three of which face east and the fourth north, all over-
looking the river. The soft limestone composing the cliff is here
stratified, the strata being slightly tilted and in places very much
eroded; the formation is colored white and red. The cave walls are
much blackened with smoke. It was possible to enter readily all but
one of these houses; the trail leading to the fourth has been obliterated
by erosion.
The largest of the Jordan ruins (pis. 87, 88), which is 175 feet in
length, extends approximately north and south. About half the front
wall and two end walls are still intact but the intermediate section of
the front wall is broken. The cliff slightly overhangs the house, form-
ing a roof; the walls extend from the edge of the cliff to the roof. The
rear wall of the cUff forms the corresponding wall of the rooms, as
indicated in the ground plan (fig. 61) — a characteristic feature of
Verde Valley cliff-houses.
On a lower level of the cliff, just beyond the Jordan ruins, are two
rooms, with blackened walls, connected by an almost cylindrical
BUBEAU OF AMEFIICAN ETHNOLOQV TWENTY-EIGHTH ANNUAL BEPOHT PLATE B7
AT THE MOUTH C
NEAR JORDAN'S RANCH
CLIFF-HOUSES ON THE UPPER VERDE RIVER
198 . ANTIQUITIES OF THE VEBDE AND WALNUT GBEEK [■th.ann.28
of stone^ but there are also fragments of adobe walls and sections of
plastered clay floors adhering to the ledge and adjacent parts of the
bowlder. As before stated, between cliff and bowlder is a crevice once
bridged by the buildings. Two or three beams project from the top
of the bowlder opposite the ledge, indicating that the space between
the bowlder and the sides of the cliff was formerly floored or roofed,
the ends of the supporting beams resting on the bowlder and the ledge.
This floor was evidently supported in part by a stone wall built in the
crevice, remains of which are shown in the ground plan. Possibly
this wall formerly served as a partition between two sm£Jl basal
rooms occupying the crevice, the remaining walls of which are no
longer traceable.
A row of shallow pits cut in the surface and sides of the bowlder
occupy approximately the position indicated in fig. 60; these served
as footholds and apparently furnished the only means by which the
inhabitants of this building could gain access thereto.
LeBGE-HOUSES NEAR JobDAN'S RaNGH
The small cliff-dwellings near Jordan's ranch, about 6 miles from
Jerome, belong to the type known as ledge-ruins, i. e., natural caves
of small extent having the fronts closed by walls of masonry. There
are several similar ledge-ruins in the valley, but the Jordan ruins are
probably the best preserved. Several ruins of this type are found in
the cliffs below Montezuma Castle, as shown in plate 79. *
The Jordan ruins are situated in the cliffs on the right bank of the
Verde about 50 feet above the river bottom and can be reached
by an easy climb over fallen stones. There are several ledge-houses in
this locality, three of which face east and the fourth north, all over-
looking the river. The soft limestone composing the cliff is here
stratified, the strata being slightly tilted and in places very much
eroded; the formation is colored white and red. The cave walls are
much blackened with smoke. It was possible to enter readily all but
one of these houses; the trail leading to the fourth has been obliterated
by erosion.
The largest of the Jordan ruins (pis. 87, 88), which is 175 feet in
length, extends approximately north and south. About half the front
wall and two end walls are still intact but the intermediate section of
the front wall is broken. The cliff slightly overhangs the house, form-
ing a roof; the walls extend from the edge of the cliff to the roof. The
rear wall of the cliff forms the corresponding wall of the rooms, as
indicated in the ground plan (fig. 61) — a characteristic feature of
Verde Valley cliff-houses.
On a lower level of the cliff, just beyond the Jordan ruins, are two
rooms, with blackened walls, connected by an almost cylindrical
FBWK18]
BUIK8 OK THE UPPEB VEBDE BIVEB
199
passageway through the interveniiig partition. The front wall of
one of these rooms is pierced by a round peephole, which commands a
view upstream. The walls of this ruin are thick except in front, where
they are badly broken down. On their inner plastered surfaces marks
of human hands appear.^
TALUS
Fig. 61 . Ground plan and section of ledge-houae near Jordan's ranch (height of front wall abou 1 50 feet) .
Ruins in Sycamore Canyon
The presence of ruins in Sycamore Canyon (Dragoon Fork of some
of the older maps) was reported, but on investigation the author was
unable to find any large buildings on this tributary of the Verde
River, although he examined several ruins — ^forts, cavate rooms, and
1 These are the ruins about which an imaginary story was pubUshed in a Jerome ( Arlaona) newspaper,
later copied into journals of wider drcolation* that they were still Inhabited.
200 ANTIQUITIES OF THE VEBDE AND WALNUT CBEEK [bth. ann. 28
walled-up caves or cliff-dwellings. Higher up the canyon is called
Sycamore Basin; this also is reputed to contain cliff-dwellings and
other evidences of former habitation, but was not visited.^
In Sycamore Canyon, about a mile from the junction of the Sycamore
and the Verde, a fine spring bubbles out of the ground, the outflow from
which formed a considerable stream at the time of the author's visit.
Half a mile farther up the canyon is a well-preserved but inaccessible
cliff-house, having an upper and a lower front wall, as shown in the
accompanying illustration (pi. 88). This ruin is situated in a cave
in the side of the cliff, the approach to which is worn away. The
stones of the upper front wall of the inner building are supported by
upright logs.
About 2 miles from the junction of Sycamore Creek and the Verde,
on both sides of the canyon, even where the walls are steepest, are
natural caves showing evidences of former occupancy.' For the
greater part the walls in these caves have tiunbled down, but rem-
nants of front waUs are still standing. Here and there the volcanic
rock is of columnar form. (PL 86, h.) The formation of the cliff
in which the caves are situated is uniformly soft and tufaceous; the
color is commonly reddish, in places almost white.
Apparently the prehistoric population of Sycamore Canyon was
small and the area that could be cultivated was meager.
On a level place to the left of the road from Jerome as one descends
to the mouth of the Sycamore there is a pueblo ruin which is much
dilapidated.
Ruins in Hell Canyon
Hell Canyon is a branch of the Verde Canyon and the small
stream flowing through the former discharges into the Verde a short
distance from the mouth of Granite Oeek. The author had been
infonned that there were extensive ruins of diff-dwellings in Hell
Canyon, but although there are here several stone ruins of the fortress
type, referred to by ranchmen as "corrals," there are few remains of
cliff-houses. One ranchman declared the Hell Canyon ruins to be the
largest on the upper Verde ; this may be true, but no ruins of great
size were visited by the author. Not far from the junction of this
canyon with the Verde is a low bluff of soft stone, suggestive of the
Oak Creek formation, which looks as if it once might have been
honeycombed with cavate rooms. These have now disappeared, only
a hint of their former existence remaining. The rock here is suitable
for cavate houses like those at the mouth of Oak Creek, and there is
level land adjacent that would serve for agricultural purposes.
I ■ . ■ ■,,■ — ■■■■ I
> There is evidence of the existence of a large ruin on the rim of the mesa or the point of the tongue of
land between the Verde and the mouth of the Sycamore, 25 miles from Williams, but this ruin was not
visited.
*It is impossible to drive up this canyon, but the trip can easily be made on horseback.
piiWKBsl BUIN8 OK THE UPPER VERDE RIVER 201
Ruins xear Del Rio
The ruins in the neighborhood of Del Rio, most of which are on the
summits of low mounds, have the same general form. Three of these
ruins, one on the Banghart ranch, described by Hinton,^ were visited.
Walls of ruined houses, of small size and inconspicuous, are to be
seen to both the right and the left of the railroad, near the station.
The ground plan of these ruins has been almost obliterated, as the
stones from the fallen walls have been carried away for use in the
construction of modem buildings in the neighborhood. Most of
these buildings seem to have consisted of small clusters of rooms.
Few of them are situated very far from the streams, and the more
copious the supply of running water the more extensive are the signs
of former aboriginal life. The ruins at Del Rio belong to the Chino
series, the characters of which they possess in all essential particulars.'
Ruins near Baker's Ranch House
The Baker ranch lies on the right bank of the Verde about 7 miles
above the mouth of Sycamore Creek. Several forts, cave habitations,
and gravelly terraced mesa ruins (pi. 90) exist near the house now
owned by Mr. Perkins.'
Following up the stream about 2 miles to the Government road,
the author observed on a malpais hill, about a mile from the river,
obscurely outlined walls of what was formerly a large fort. Within an
inclosure bounded by the fallen walls are the remains of several rooms.
Although this is not one of the best-preserved or largest forts on the
upper Verde, its walls are still breast high. About 2 miles down the
Verde from the Baker ranch house is a cave on the walls of which
is a circular pictograph painted in black, probably Apache.
A mile down the Verde from Baker's (Perkins') ranch house, on
the right bank of the river, are the remains of a cliff-house of con-
siderable size, the groimd plan of which is shown in figure 62. A
few years ago the waUs were in good condition and the structure was
then regarded as a fine example of a cliff-house. Owing to the fact
that this ruin lies in the surveyed route of the proposed railroad
from Cedar Grove to Jerome, most of its walls will have to be de-
stroyed when the road is built. The cave in wliich the ruin is situ-
ated is about 40 feet in depth and about 34 feet in width (from north
to south wall) at the entrance ; the height of the floor above the creek
is 50 feet. On the plain in front of the cave, between the talus and
the river, are fallen walls of a small pueblo from which many stones
1 Hinton. Handbook to Arisona, p. 419.
> Del Rio, sometimes called Chlno, Is not a town but consists merely of a section house on the Santa F6,
Prasoott & Phomix Railroad.
s Mrs. Baker, who formarly lived here, Is reported to have made a collection of archeologlo ol]deot% among
which is said to have been an obsidian ax.
202 ANTIQUITIES OF THE VEBDE AND WALNUT CBBBE [KH. kH.i. 28
have been removed recently for use in the construction of a neigh-
boring wall, but enough of the foundation stones remain to enable
tracing the general ground plan.
Although this cave is a natural formation, in the rear are niches or
cubby-holes evidently artificially excavated. The roof is about 15
feet above the floor of the rooms. The cave floor is covered with
fallen stones upon some of which the foundations of the remaining
walls still rest. Evidently this ruin has been considerably dug over '
by relic seekers, for in the fine dust which covers the floors are
found charcoal, fragments of pottery, stones showing artificial work-
Pia. ez. OrouDdplui of clUI-diretUiigUBiktr'9 ranch.
ing, fragments of corncobs, twine, and other objects. It is said that
a few fine specimens have been removed from this debris, but noth-
ing of value was found by the author. The remnants of several
plastered walls painted red can still be traced.
KUIN NEAR THE MOUTU OF GrANITB OBEBK
Granite Creek, on which the city of Prescott is situated, discharges
its waters into the Verde not far from Del Rio. About 2 miles down
the Verde from the mouth of Granite Creek, the stream makes an
abrupt bend by reason of a volcanic chff rising perpendicularly from
the river. This cliff is crowned by a large fort (pi. 95) of aboriginal
BT7INS ON THE TJPPEB VBBDE BIVEB
208
coDBtruction. The ruin^ is situated almost due north of Jerome
Junction, from which it can be reached by the road which turns at
•«
Fio. 08. Qioand plan of fori Qear the mottth of Oraaite Greek.
Del Rio at right angles to the railroad and continues eastward to
the mouth of Granite Creek. A visit can be readily made by wagon
1 This Is probably one of the niliu mentk>Ded by Hlxiton, In hia Handbook to Ariiona.
.• :"-* --■»•
M
* ;
L RETORT PLATE 89
LIMESTONE BUTTE (ABOVE) AND CORNVILLE RUINS
auREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY TWENTY-EIOHTH ANNUAL BEPORT PLATE 91
LIMESTONE BUTTE RUIN
nWKU] * LIMESTONE BUTTE BUIN 205
masoniy, well preserved, BTeraging about 8 feet in height and 4^ feet
in width. On the western side the foundations confonn more or leas
with the edge of the cliff, the face of which is sinuous; the other
walls are fairly strai^t. The inside north-south measurement is 69
feet; the east-west, 27} feet.
64. Qround plan ol Limcsloo* Butta niln.
No trace of mortar remains and the component stones of the
walls are roughly dressed. The northem angle is almost wholly
occupied by s small low-walled room, but the rest of the inclosure is
without debris; the floor ia sohd rock. At a southwestern angle of
the surrounding wall there was originally a crevice in the floor, since
206 ANTIQUITIES OF THE VEBDE AND WALNUT CBEEK * Lbth. ann. 28
walled up, suggesting the former presence of an entrance from below,
but the adjacent walls have fallen to so great an extent that its
purpose is difficult to determine. Below the western wall, the curve
of which is shown in the accompanying views (pis. 90| c; 91, h),
is a rude wall suggesting a cave-room, the other waUs of which ore
obscurely indicated.
Viewed from the north, almost entire walls are seen, the fouQda-
tions of which at certain places are large projecting bowlders. (See
pi. 91, a, 6.)
RUINS ON WALNUT OlEEK
Walnut Creek is a small stream the waters of which at times flow
into the Chino, but which, on the occasion of the writer's visit, were
lost in the sands about 8 miles below old Camp Hualapai. In the
report of Whipple's reconnoissance the stream bears the name of
Pueblo Creek, from certain ** pueblos" on the hills overlooking it,
which he described, but the name is no longer applied to it. The
ruins of Walnut Creek are of two kinds, one situatcnd on the low
terrace bordering the creek, the other on the hilltops. The stream
is formed by the junction of two branches and the valley is continuous
from Aztec Pass to the point where it merges into Chino Valley.
There is evidence that Walnut Valley had a considerable aboriginal
population in prehistoric times. A number of forts and many remains
of settlements strewn with pottery fragments and broken stone arti-
facts were found. Here and there are mounds, also irrigation ditches
and pictographs.
A few years ago Walnut Valley had a number of white settlers
and a post office/ but the families have now dwindled in number to
three or four, and the place is characterized chiefly by abandoned
houses. Camp Hualapai is deserted, the adobe houses shown in the
accompanying illustration (pi. 92) being almost the only reminder
of its former existence.
HisTOBiCAL Account
Whipple was the first to mention the numerous ruins (^ * pueblos " and
forts) and other evidences of a former aboriginal population in Walnut
Oeek Valley. Subsequent to his visit no new observations on them
appear in published accounts of the ruins of Arizona, and no arche-
ologist seems to have paid attention to this interesting valley, a
fact which gave the author new enthusiasm to visit the region and
inspect its antiquities. These seemed of special interest, as Whip-
ple's account was inadequate as a means of determining their rela-
tions with other aboriginal ruins in the Southwest. Who built the
< The post office was removed to Simmons, in Williamson Valley.
OLD CAMP HUALAPAI AND MOUNT HOPE
L BEPOHT PLATE 93
N£*H *irtSWOBTH'S BANCH
VIEWS IN WALNUT VALLEY
FBWKSS] BtJINS ON WALNUT CBEBK 207
structures and who are the descendants of the builders, are impor-
tant questions.
. In ancient times there was a well-worn Indian trail from the
Colorado River, past Mount Hope, through Aztec Pass, down Walnut
Creek, and across Williamson and Chino Valleys to the Verde. This
trail, used by later American explorers^ was doubtless the one fol-
lowed by some of the early Spanish missionaries in their efforts to
reach the Hopi Indians from the California side. Although the route
taken by early Spanish^ travelers in crossing the country west of the
Hopi villages is more or less problematical, it woxdd seem that Ofiate,
in 1604, may have crossed the divide at Aztec Pass (pi. 93, h), and that
Father Garc&, 172 years later, may have followed this trail past Mount
Hope and down Walnut Creek. The Yavapai C'Yampais") were
numerous in this region at that time and much later, as indicated on
the few maps and descriptions which have come down to us.
In 1853 Sitgreaves followed the same Indian trail over Aztec Pass,
crossing the country afterward traversed by Whipple, but,, although
he must have seen several ruins in this region, he mentions none, nor
do others who followed approximately the same route, namely, Beale's
road, known also as the Government road.
There is considerable arable land lying along Walnut Creek (pi. 93),
which is continually shifting, owing to the inroads made by the stream,
hence it is hardly probable that the flats now seen are those once
cultivated by the Indians. It may be for this reason that the ancient
farmhouses were built on the tongue-shaped terraces or on gravelly
mesas bordering the stream, where the ruins are now found.
The forts were built on the summits of the highest prominences
both for protection and for the sake of obtaining a wide view up and
down the stream, and it is an instructive fact in this connection that
one rarely loses sight of one of these hill forts before another can be
seen. By means of a system of smoke signals news of an approaching
foe could be communicated from settlement to settlement from one end
of Walnut Valley to the other, giving the farmers in their fields skirt-
ing the stream opportunity to retreat to the forts for protection.
The ruins in Walnut C* Pueblo") Creek Valley *. are thus referred to
in Whipple's report:
Five milee beyond Turkey Creek we came upon Pueblo Creek, 00 called on account
of extensive ruins of houses and fortifications that lined its banks . . . Wide
Indian trails and riiins of extensive fortifications constructed centuries since upon
the heights to defend it showed that not only present tribes but ancient races had
deemed Aztec Pass of great importance.
-
1 The names ''Turkey Creek" and " Pueblo Creek/' mentioned by Whipple, do not seem to have been
generally adopted by white settlers. The stream called by Whipple " Pueblo Creek" is now called Wal-
nut Creek. *'Actec Pass" also is a name but little known to settlers in this region.
208 ANTIQUITIES QF THE VEBDE AND WALNUT CBEEK [etb. ann. 28
The only accounts known to the author, of the ruins in Walnut
Valley are the reports of lieutenant Whipple and Lieutenant Ives,^
which unfortunately contain but meager descriptions of these antiqui-
ties.' Most of the writers on the ruins of Arizona do not refer to
those found in this valley.
Whipple speaks of several ruins on Walnut (Pueblo) Cieek, but
his references are too brief even for identification. One of these*
said to be situated on Turkey Creek, he characterizes (op. cit , pt. 1,
p. 92) as-
dilapidated walls of a tower. The ground-plan was an ellipse, with axes 25 and 15
feet, partitions dividing it into three apartments. The walls must have been large,
as they yet remained 5 feet in height, and 6 feet wide. The hill is 250 feet above the
river.
This description does not correspond with respect to size, elevation,
or general appearance with any ruin visited by the author in this
region.
Alarcon ascended the Colorado to the point where it forms a
''straight channel between high mountains/' possibly the mouth of
Bill Williams River, the mountains being situated, as pointed out by
Professor Turner, not far from the junction of this stream with the
Colorado.
Whipple found near his camp (No. 105) a ruin similar to those
here mentioned, of which he wrote (p. 94) as follows:
To obtain a still more extensive view, Mr. Campbell climbed a steep hill, several
hundred feet above the ridge of the pass, formed by a short spur from the abrupt ter-
mination of the northern mountain chain, and found upon the top ruins of another
fortification. Its length was 100 feet. It was 25 feet wide at one end, and 20 at
the other. The wall was well built, 4 feet thick, and still remaining 5 feet high. It
commanded a view of the pass, and, with proper armament, was well situated to defend
and keep possession of it from an enemy. The entrance, 6 feet wide, was from the
steepest side of the hill — almost inaccessible. From a famcy founded on the evident
antiquity of these ruins, we have given the name of Aztec Pass to this place.
A ruin supposed to be that just described was visited by the
author, the results of whose observations, however, differ so much
from Whipple's account as to suggest doubt regarding the identity
of the remains.
From Walnut Creek the old Indian trail followed by Whipple
ascends Aztec Pass, becoming a rough wagon road bordering gran-
itic rocks. West of the pass the country is comparatively level,
sloping gradually to a sheep ranch on the Baca Grant, called Oaks
and Willows. The high mountain seen from the road for some dis-
tance west of Aztec Pass is called Mount Hope (pi. 92).' Beyond
I Reports of Explorations and Surveys to Ascertain the Most Practicable and Economical Route for a
Railroad from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean. Made under the direction of the Secretary of
War in 1853-4. Vol. in, parts i-iv. Extracts from the [preliminary] report of Lieut. A. W. Whipple
[assisted by Lieut. J. C. Ives], Corps of Topographical Engineers, upon the route near the thirty-fifth
parallel.
> This mountain is incorrectly located on the United States Land OfUce map. It stands on the Baca
Grant.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY TWENTV-EIOHTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 94
VIEWS IN BIQ BURRO CANYON
FEWKES] BUINS ON WALNUT CREEK 209
Oaks and Willows, keeping tliis mountain on the right, a fairly clear
trail continues to a deserted ranch, marked by a ruined stone chim-
ney and a corral, at the head of Burro Creek. Here, at the terminus
of all wagon roads, among magnificent pines, is a pool of water;
beyond, the traveler may continue on horseback to the Big Burro
(pi. 94), one of the large canyons of this region.
Following Bill Williams River westward to its junction with the
Colorado, no ruins on hilltops were seen by Wheeler's party, but
at Yampai Spring, near the former river, the lower side of a high
shelving rock forms, according to Whipple's report, a cave the walls
of which are ** covered" with pictographs.
The former habitations of the Walnut Creek aborigines were doubt-
less constructed after the manner of jdcales, supported by stone or
adobe foundations, a common feature of most of the ruins herein
described. Entrance to these inclosures must have been difficult,
as the doorways no doubt were guarded and many of the pas-
sages were devious, a defensive measure quite conm[ionly adopted
in the palisaded houses of the tribes bordering the Colorado River.
The Indians along this river, mentioned by Don Jos6 Cortez in 1799
as the Cajuenche and the TaUiguamays (Quigyuma), erect their huts
in the form of an encampment, inclosing them with a stockade.
According to the same author, the Cuabajai (Serranos), another
tribe, built their towns C'rancherias") in the form of great squares,,
each provided with two gates, one at the eastern, the other at the
western end; here sentinels stood. The dwellings consisted of huts
constructed of limbs of trees.
A typical ruin of the Walnut Creek Valley is thus referred to by
Whipple (op. cit., pt. 1, p. 93):
Lieutenant Ives and Doctor Kennerly to-day ascended a peak 300 or 400 feet
high, the last in the ridge that hounds and overlooks the valley of Pueblo [Walnut]
Creek, some 3 miles below camp, and found upon the top an irregular fortification of
stone, the broken walls of which were 8 or 10 feet high. Several apartments could
be distinctly traced, with crumbling divisions about 5 feet thick. From thence to
the pueblo, upon the gravelly slopes that lie slightly elevated above the bottom lands
of the creek, there are, as has before been noted, vast quantities of pottery, and what
appear to be dim traces of the foundations of adobe waUs.' It would seem, therefore,
that in ancient times there existed here a laige settlement, and that the inhabitants
were obliged to defend themselves by strong works against attacks from a powerful
enemy.*
«
No excavation was attempted by the author in the Walnut Creek
region but his attention was drawn to human bones that had been
> An important obaenration, as most of the dwellings were built on stones which formed their foanda-
tions. The adobe walls and the pests and wattling supporting them have now disappeared, the founda-
tion stones being all that remain of the buildings.— J. W. F.
> The "old chief" told Alaroon of great houses of stone inhabited by a warlike race. These people were
said to live near a mountain and to wear long robes sewed with needles of deer bone. Their fields of
maise were small.— J. W. F.
20903*»— 28 ETH— 12 14
210 ANTIQUITIES OP THE VERDE AND WALNUT CBEEK [bth. ann. 28
found in the ruins on the river terrace above Mr. Ainsworth's ranch
and in the neighborhood of Mr. Peter Marx's house. Al^Jiough, as
is commonly the case, the fragments of skeletons are locally supposed
to have belonged to giants, the few bones examined by the author
were of the same size and had the same general characters as those
found elsewhere in the Southwest. Rings of stones indicating human
burials are prominent just outside the fort above Mr. Shook's house
and in the gravel of the river terrace not far from the residence
of Mr. Ainsworth.
FOBT BELOW AZTBO PaSS
A short distance from Mr. William Johnson's ranch house on the
road to Drew's ranch, on the right bank, rises a steep hill, 100 feet
high, on which is situated the best-preserved fort in the Walnut Creek
region. Thb is probably the *' pueblo" mentioned by Whipple, pos-
sibly one of the structures that gave the name Pueblo Creek to the
*-*
lO IS zo
career
Fio. 65. Ground plan of fort below Aztec Paas.
stream now- called Walnut Creek. The fort commands a view up
and down the valley from Aztec Pass to the fort near Shook's ranch,
and beyond.
The accompanying illustrations (pis. 95-97) show the present ap-
pearance of this fort and the steepness of the hill from the side toward
Walnut Creek; on account of the trees on the sunmiit the ruin is
almost invisible.
The waUs are oriented east and west (fig. 65), the northern and
southern sides being the longer. Although seemingly rectangular
in outline, the northern side, measuring (inside) 80 feet in length, is
5 feet longer than the southern side. The eastern and western sides
are respectively 30 and 25 feet in length. The average thickness of
the walls is 4 feet and their height 6 feet.
At present the walls are in almost the same condition as when con-
structed. Except at the northeastern and northwestern comers^
FORT BELOW AZTEC PASS
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY TWENTY-EIOHTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 97
FORT BELOW AZTEC PASS
NEAR AINS WORTH'S RANCH
TERRACE-RUINS IN WALNUT VALLEY
BUREAU OF AMERICAN
FORT OVERLOOK I NO shook' S
SHOCK'S RANCH
RUIN ON MESA AT BAKER'S RANCH
WALNUT VALLEY RUINS
PBWKB8] BUINS ON WALNUT CBEEK 211
where the entrances to the inclosure were situated, only a few stones
have fallen. All the walls are made of small rough stones laid with-
out mortar, the largest stones for the greater part forming the
foundation; the walls slant slightly inward, as is noticeable in the
comer shown in plate 96 (bottom) . A cross section of the broken wall
reveals the fact that large stones were used in construction on the
inside and the outside facings, the intermediate section being filled
in with smaller stones — a common mode of mural construction in
the Walnut Creek and other regions.
Ruins near Drew's Ranch House
A short distance from Mr. Drew's ranch house,* now (1911) de-
serted, are several level terraces on which are small stones arranged
in squares in rows, and other evidences of former aborigmal habita-
tions. A considerable quantity of potteiy fragments is also to be
found, indicating that the few level areas in this vicinity were once
occupied by ihan. Rings of stones like those near the Ainsworth
ranch house, from which fragments of human bones had been exca-
vated, are supposed to mark the sites of burial places.
RXHNS NEAR AiNSWORTH's RaNOH HoUSB
It may safely be said that wherever in the Walnut Creek Valley
land well situated for cultivation may be found, there may be expected
also evidences of occupancy by former inhabitants, either remains
of houses or irrigation ditches, or pictographs. Most of these habi-
tations are situated on the low river terraces or tongue-shaped grav-
elly mesas that project into the valley. The sites of the ancient
farms are difficult to determine, for the reason that, as before explained,
the continually changing stream has modified more or less the bottom
lands along its course.
From some of the best of these ruins (pi. 98), situated near Mr.
Ainsworth's house, human skeletons, fragments of pottery, and other
evidences of former human occupancy have been obtained. The sites
of the houses are indicated by rows of bowlders,^ which in some places
are arranged in circles.
Ruins near Shock's Ranch House
One of the largest forts in the Walnut Creek region overlooks
Shook's ranch, from the summit of a lofty hill on the left bank of
the creek. This fort (pi. 99), which is visible for a long distance up
1 Drew's ranch Is the last white man's home encountered on the way np the valley, befofe the road
ascends the hill to Aztec Pass. Walnut Cieek divides at a point near level areas showing evidences of
cultivation. The country is well wooded, forming part of the Prescott National Forest, the ranger of which
lives near old Camp Hualapai.
s Resembling the so-called "bowlder sites" in the middle and lower Verde Valley, described by Cosmos
llindelefl.
212 ANTIQUITIES OF THE VEBDE AND WALNUT CEEES [ei%.anh.S8
and down the stream, ia the first of the seriea seen on entering Wahiut
Vall^ from Simmons post office.
This ruin (fig. 66) is nearly rectangular in shape, measuring 103 feet
on the western side, 87 feet on the eastern, 118 feet on the northern,
and on the southern, the side overiooking the river, 100 feet. The
FiQ.W. anNudpUaofbrtoreiioakliicSlMok'snHiiih.
inner and outer faces of the walls are composed of lai^e stones, the
space between them being filled with rubble.
The fallen walls witlun the inclosure indicate the former presence
of many buildings, some circular in form. Rings of stones, averaging
16 by 13 feet in diameter, are found just outside the fort, on the aide
facing the river, where the ground is level.
FBWKBS]
BiriNS ON WALNUT GBEEK
213
too rT
17 F-T
f
I
i
•J*
Directly across Walnut Creek from Shook's ranch house, not far
from the ford and overlooking the valley, on a low, gravelly river
terrace, are the remains of a quadrangular wall, oriented approxi-
mately north and south (fig. . ^ - ^ -
67). The northern side of S^•^•'••••'^^^^•^t:•>•'^^^^•••^^^•>
this quadrangle is 100 feet in
length, the southern 93 feet,
the western 125 feet, and the
eastern 143 feet. The walls
are composed of rows of stones,
rising at no point very high
above the present surface of
the ground. Mr. Shook, the
owner of the ranch on which
this ruin is situated, informed
the author that formerly this
wall was higher, stones having
been removed for use in the
construction of buildings across
the stream.
In the middle of this* quad-
rangle is a low, flat-topped
mound, about 4 feet in height,
measuring 94 feet in length by
17 feet in width. The relation
of this interior structure to the surrounding wall suggests the
massive^walled building of a compound, as described in the
author's account of Casa Grande, in this volume.
lb
%
t
L ^
^^
2-
!
■%:wrM!P
%
Fio.67. Onmnd plan of terrace-ruin near Sbook's ranch.
EuiN NEAR Marx's Ranch House
Artificial mounds are found on terraces among the cedars on the
right bank of Walnut Creek almost to its mouth. One of these
mounds, opposite Mr. Peter Marx's house, is particularly interesting.
This ruin (pi. 98) consists of two parts — a rectangular inclosure,
oriented north and south, and a nearly circular mound about 100 feet
to the west. The former (fig. 68) measures 28 feet on the northern
and 23 feet on the southern side; the eastern side is 65 feet long, and
the western 63 feet. The two axes of the mound measure, respectively,
72 and 77 feet. Large ancient cedars grow on the mound and also
within the rectangular inclosure.
The decorated pottery found here varies in color and design. For
the greater part it consists of white ware bearing black decorations.
The designs are geometrical patterns, mostly terraced figures, squares.
214 ANTIQUITIES OF THE VERDE AND WALNUT CBEEK [bth. ann. 28
and parallel lines. Fragments of coiled ware, which is very rare in
the Walnut Creek region, have been unearthed in these ruins. There
are also many fragments of coarse, undecorated ware.
Many artificial mounds are found in the cedars on terraces on the
right bank of the creek. One of these is situated on the baak of the
creek opposite Mr. Marx's house.
Not far from the terrace on which these mounds are situated the
course of a prehistoric irrigation ditch can be traced about 100 feet,
and several distinct pictographs (pi. 101) may be seen.^
LOW MOUt>^0
r/?
T» — * — t^rar
^/r
"^W"""*"
Fio. 68. Ground plan of terrace-ruin on Marx's ranch.
Ruin near Sheep C!orral, below Marx's Ranch
About a mile and a half from the Marx ranch stands a ruin about
50 feet above the creek, on a tongue of land projecting eastward,
overlooking a deep canyon on the south and a more gradual decline
toward Walnut Creek on the north. The remains indicate the
former presence of a block of rooms, or row of houses, 52 feet long
by 17 feet wide. Four rooms with low walls, none of which was
more than a single story in height, can be plainly traced.
The numerous fragments of pottery strewn over the ground outside
the walls afford evidence of the occupancy of this structure for a
considerable period; it served as both a post of defense and a perma-
nent residence.
1 The pictographs of western and southern Arieona are characteristic, differing from those made by
Pueblos. In places are piles of rocks, each bearing one pictograph.
RUIN SIX MILES BELOW MARX'S RANCH
BUttEAU OF AMEHICAN
PICTOGHAPH ON BOWLDER *
n BATHE'S RANCH
PICTOORAPHS NEAR BATRE'S RANCH
FORT AND P1CTOGRAPHS
fbwkk8] fobts neab fbog tanks 215
Ruin Six Miles below Marx's Ranch
A ruined fort (pis. 85, 100) occupies a low limestone hill a short
distance from the right bank of the river, where the vaUey widens
somewhat before opening into Chino Valley. There was no running
water in the stream in October, and possibly this condition exists at
other times. On account of the level character of this region the
fortification is visible a considerable distance from every direction.
The walls, which are more or less broken down, cover the whole
top of the hill. The general ground plan of the surrounding wall is
roughly oval, its longer axis extending north and south; there is an
entrance at the north. The periphery of the wall measures approxi-
mately 227 feet. While a large part of the walls of rooms within
the inclosure have fallen, so that they can not well be traced, a con-
siderable section still remains, forming near the doorway what ap-
pears to have been an entrance.
The habitations dependent on this fort can be traced nearer the
creek bed. On an island farther down stream are walls of another ruin.
FORT ON INDIAN HILL NEAR PRESCOTT
On the summit of a symmetrical eminence, known as Indian
Hill, not far west of Prescott, is a fort similar in construction to
the forts overlooking Walnut Creek. The walls are extensive and
in places well preserved, but a considerable section has fallen. No
fragments of pottery were found here.
In the vicinity of Thumb Butte, another eminence near Prescott,
are pictographs not unlike those found in the Walnut Creek region.
Remains of other Indian structures . and settlements occur at
various places near Prescott; these show that the aboriginal culture
of this vicinity had many points in common, if it was not identical,
with that of Chino Valley and the Walnut Creek region.
Along Hassayampa and Granite Creeks and in Agua Fria and
other valleys is found the same type of ruins, none of which are
those of true pueblos.
FORTS NEAR FROG TANKS, AGUA FRLL RIVER
There are many forts and river-terrace ruins on the Agua Fria
and other streams that head in the mountains about Prescott and
flow into the Salt and the Gila. Those on the Agua Fria near Frog
Tanks are typical.
About a mile up this stream, near the Batre mineral claim, where
the vaUey widens into a level area, or bar, rises a prominent hill
crowned by the remains of an old fort (pi. 101). The walls here
have fallen to so great an extent that it is almost impossible to trace
the ground plan of the ruin. There appears to have been a citadel.
216 ANTIQUITIES OF THE VEBDE AND WALNUT CBEEK [■th.ann.28
or central building, higher than the surrounding structure, at the very
top of the hill, in the midst of a level inclosure, protected by a wall,
while fragments of other walls are found on the sides of the hill.
About 3 miles down the river from Frog Tanks stand several ruins
still more important than that just mentioned. Ond of the most
imposing of these is on the right of the road to Glendale, on an
upheaval of rocks the tops and sides of which are surrounded by many
walls of stone, as shown in plate 102. These walls are nowhere very
high, but the sides of the outcrop are so steep and the walls so numerous
that it is evident the place was a well-fortified stronghold.^
Near a ranch about a mile away are many mounds, evidently
remains of houses and surrounding walls, indicating the former exist-
ence of an inclosure of stone, resembling a compound. Many speci-
mens of stone implements, fragments of pottery, pictographs on
scattered bowlders (pi. 101), and other examples of aboriginal handi-
work are said to have been found in this locality. The site of these
mounds is a gravelly river terrace like that of the rancherias of Walnut
Creek. Each locality has a place of habitation, and a fortified place
of refuge in case of attack — the two essential features of ancient
aboriginal settlements in this part of Arizona.
CONCLUSIONS
Kinship op Early Inhabitants op Walnut Creek and Upper
Verde Valleys
Very little is known of the kinship relations of the aborigines who
inhabited the caves and erected the buildings now in ruins in the upper
Verde and Walnut Creek Valleys. From traditional sources it seems
probable that some of their descendants, of mixed blood, are to be
looked for among the Yavapai, Walapai, and Havasupai tribes. The
Hopi also claim, however, that certain of their clans once lived in the
Verde Valley, and there are archeological evidences in support of this.
The structures whose ruins lie to the west of the upper Verde, and
those situated in the Chino, Williamson, and Walnut Creek Vallejrs,
are probably too far west to have been the product of Hopi clans;
but although their former inhabitants were not Pueblos they built
dweUings simUar in type to those of the latter.
According to Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner* (Pacific Railroad
Report, vol. m, pt. 3, pp. 14-16, Washington, 1856) —
The vast region toward the south [of San Francifico Mountams], lying between Rio
Velrde and the Aztec Range of mountains, is occupied by Tontos; while west and
northwest of that range, to the mouth of Rio Viigen, are found a tribe calling them-
selves Yabipais, or, as sometimes written, Yampais. Their numbers are estimated
at 2,000 each. Leroux and Savedra believe these three to be allied tribes; but there
exists some doubt upon the subject. The language of the latter proves that they have
1 The writer's attention was drawn to this ruin by Mr. Batre, who has extensive mineral claims in this
neighborhood.
ETHNOLOOV TWENTY-EIQHTH ANNUAL REPORT PLATE 103
TRfNCHERAS AT FROO TANKS RUINS
FBWKM] CONCLUSIONS 217
an afl^ty with the Mojaves and Guchana of Rio Colorado; while, according to Don
Joe6 Cortez, the Tontos belong to the Apache Nation. I have myself found Tonto
villages intermingled with those of Pinal Lefias, north of Rio Gila, with whom they
lived on friendly terms, with like customs and habits; except that they subsisted
almost exclusively upon mescal and pifLones . . . and possessed none of the
fruits of agriculture. Yet the country they now occupy shows traces of ancient
acequias, and has extensive valleys of great fertility . . .
The tribe that now occupies the region from Pueblo Creek to the junction of Rio
Verde with the Salinas is called Tonto. The word in Spanish signifies stupid^ but
Mexicans do not apply that signification to these Indians; on the contrary, they con*
sider them rather sharp, particularly at stealing. Therefore, as it is not a term of
reproach, we may reasonably suppose that, as is frequently .the case, it is the Indian
name corrupted, perhaps, by Spanish spelling. . . . Don Jos^ Cortez, as may
be seen in chapter vi, calls them Apaches; but Sevedra [me], who is a well-informed
Mexican, and, having been much among wild tribes of Indians, is generally considered
authority in whatever relates to them, says that Tontos are Indians of Montezuma,
like those of the pueblos of New Mexico. Pimas, Maricopas, Cuchans, and Mojaves,
also, he adds, belong to the same great nation. In proof of this, he asserts that they all
have one custom — ^that of cropping the front hair to meet their eyebrows, . . .
suffering the rest, back of their ears, to grow and hang down its full length.
In the present uncertainty as to the ancestors of the three or more
tribes that inhabited the Wakiut Creek region from the time the first
Spaniards entered the country to the advent of the exploring parties
whose reports are here quoted; it is not possible to reach a final opin-
ion with regard to the Idnship of these people. The sedentary tribes
that once lived in the region have been modified, in so far as their
consanguinity is concerned; by intermixture with nomadic peoples
(Apache and other tribes). The archeologic evidences indicate that
they had close affinity jbo the Mohave and Colorado River tribes and
to those living about Fresco tt and along the northern tributaries of
the Salt River. In order to estimate the value of this evidence; a
few fortified hills near Prescott were visited and a preliminary exami-
nation of similar structures at the mouth of Agua Fria was made.
The ruins on the terraces along Walnut Creek are similar to those on
the VerdC; the *' bowlder sites *' of Mindelefl, who thus refers to them: *
It seems quite likely that only the lower course or courses of the walls of these dwell-
ings were of bowlders, the superstructure being perhaps sometimes of earth (not adobe)
but more probably often of the type known as ' * jacal " — ^upright slabs of wood plastered
with mud. This method of construction was known to the ancient pueblo peoples
and is used today to a considerable extent by the Mexican population of the south-
west and to a less extent in some of the pueblos. No traces of this construction were
found in the bowlder-marked sites, perhaps because no excavation was carried on;
but it is evident that the rooms were not built of stone, and that not more than a small
percentage could have been built of n^mmed earth or grout, as the latter, in disin-
tegrating leaves well-defined mounds and- lines of debris.
It is probable that the bowlder-marked ruins are the sites of secondary and tem-
porary ' structures, erected for convenience in working fields near to or overlooked
by them and distant from the home pueblo. The character of the sites occupied by
1 Mlnddeff, Cooiios, Aboriginal Remains In Verde Valley, AriEona,in IStk Ann. Rep. Bur. EthnoL,p. 237.
* It seems to the author more probable that these were permanent dwellings, as viewed in the light o(
corresponding structures on Walnut Creek.— J. W. F.
218 ANTIQUITIES OF THE VEBDE AND WALNUT CBEEK [ith. ann. 28
them and the plan of the structures themselves support this hypothesis. That they
were connected with the permanent stone villages is evident from their comparative
abundance about each of the larger ones, and that they were constructed in a less
substantial manner than the home pueblo is shown by the character of the remains.
The resemblances of forts and accompanying habitations of the
upper Verde and Wahiut. Canyon to those about Prescott, on Granite
Creek, the Hassay ampa, Agua Fria, ^and in other valleys of northern
and central Arizona, and to similar structures in the valleys of the
Gila and Salt and their tributaries, have led the author to include the
structures of the first-named group in a culture area which reached
its most specialized development in the neighborhood of the present
towns of Phoenix and Mesa City, and at Casa Grande.
It is the author's conviction that the people who built the forts and
terrace habitations^ on Agua Fria, Hassayampa, and Granite Creeks
were the "frontiersmen" of those who occupied formerly the Gila and
Salt River Valleys, where they constructed the great compounds, or
comm.unal buildings, like Casa Grande.
Clans of these people migrating northward met other agricultiu*al
tribes which had drifted from the Rio Grande pueblo region to the
Little Colorado and its tributary, Zufii River, and became amalga-
mated with them. Lower down the river they settled at Homolobi,
near Winslow, which later was abandoned, some of the clans continu-
ing northward to the Hopi mesas. These people, the ancestors of the
so-called Patki clans of the modem Hopi, followed in their northern
migrations the Tonto and Verde Rivers. Some of those who went up
the Verde branched oflf to the Little Colorado, but others continued
along the banks of the former stream, sending offshoots along its upper
tributaries, and at last entered the Chino Valley, where they met
clans moving eastward. Many northern migrants followed the Has-
sayampa and the Agua Fria. As these clans entered the mountain
canyons, measures for protection necessitated construction of the
many hilltop forts and other defenses whose remains are still found.
The general characteristics of the trincheras on Walnut Creek and
the upper Verde suggest similar structures overlooking the valleys of
the Gila and Salt. There are of course in the Walnut Creek area no
large ''compounds" with walls made of natural cement {caliche) j for
this region does not furnish material adapted to such construction.
The trincheras,' Uke those near Caborca and Magdalena in Sonora,
or Chakyuma near Tucson, closely resemble the fortified hilltops along
the Agua Fria, at Indian Hill near Prescott, and in the Cliino, upper
Verde, and Walnut Creek sections. Associated with these defenses
are found on the terraces along the rivers in these regions rows of
foundation stones, from which once rose walls of mud on a frame-
1 There are alao remains of Irrigation ditches in this neighborhood.
> The "fort" is for the greater part a more compact structure than the trinckfra; it Is more nearly rec-
tangular in form but the walls of the two types are practically identical In character.
nwKBS] CONCLUSIONS 219
work of posts and wattling, the remains of houses not unlike in con-
struction certain former habitations at Casa Grande.^
• In other words the ancient people of these regions seem to have
constructed two kinds of buildings — ^forts on the hilltops and fragile
habitations on the river terraces, which differed structurally and were
occupied for special and distinct purposes. The former were defen-
sive retreats for use in case of attack, the latter permanent domiciles
or habitations, conveniently situated on terraces adjacent to farms.
The same or an allied people erected also houses in natural caves or
excavated them in soft rock. Dwellings of the latter kind are found
particularly in the area on the border of the Pueblo region, especially
where the character of the rock lent itself to their construction^ The
inhabitants apparently had no kivas (rooms especially devoted to
religious ceremonies), but they probably had a compUcated ritual.
Terraced ruins are rare or unknown.
It appears that the dwellings of these people belong to a special
type distinct from the terraced compact community houses, or pueblos,
stUl represented among the Hopi, the ZufLi, and the numerous Pueblos
of the Rio Grande, although identical with some ancient houses in
New Mexico. It is not strange if some of the descendants of clans
formerly peopling this area have become amalgamated with the Hopi.
In ancient times^ however, the two cultures were as distinct, for
instance, as are the present Havasupai and the Hopi, and in certain
areas one of these cultures antedated the other. The Hopi and the
Havasupai are friends and visit each other, and at times the Hopi
allow some of the Havasupai to enter their kivas.
The two types of artificial caves used as domiciles have been dis-
tinguished elsewhere as those with vertical and those with lateral
entrances. Both types may possess walled buUdings above or in front
of them, the cave becoming in the former case a storeroom, in the
latter a rear chamber, possibly devoted to ceremonies.
The association of walled buildings with artificial caves is quite
general, the former being found either on the talus below or on the
cliff above the latter, as well shown in the cavate dwellings on Oak
Creek. A similar duality in cave-dwellings occurs in the case of
some of the larger cliff-houses, as, for example, those in Canyon de
CheUy. This duality is parallel with that existing in the forts and
rancherias or terrace (bowlder) sites on Walnut Creek.'
Age of Walnut Cbebk and Vbbde Vaulet Ruins
It does not appear from evidences presented thus far that any con-
siderable antiquity can be ascribed to the aboriginal structures in
the Walnut Creek region, which were probably in use in the middle
.- ■ ■ II '1 ■^— "^^"^^^^ '
1 See Prehistoric Ruins of the Oila Valley, in Smithtonian MitceUaneotu CoUeetionit vol. 52, pt. 4.
lia8siT»>walled building for protection and fragile-waUed habitations exist together within the inckh
saras of Oila Valley compounds, presenting the same dual combination, architeoturally speaking.
CONTENTS
Pace
Introduction 225
Notes on pronunciation 226
Algonquian linguistic groups 229
Blackfoot (Siksika) 229
Cheyenne 232
Arapaho 234
Eastern-Central 237
Central subtype 237
Cree-Montagnais 238
Cree 238
Montagnais 247
Menominee 249
Sauk, and close linguistic cognates 252
Shawnee 256
Sauk, Fox, and Kickapoo 258
Ojibwa, and close linguistic cognates 261
O jibwa, Potawatomi, Ottawa, and Algonkin 262
Peoria 270
Natick 272
Delaware .• 275
Eastern subtype 280
Summary 289
Appendices 290
1. Comparative table of the Cree (Moose and Fort Totten), Menominee,
Fox, Shawnee, Passamaquoddy, Abnaki, Ojibwa, Algonkin, Peoria,
Natick, and Delaware independent mode, present tense 290
2. Comparative table of the Cree (Moose and East Main), Fox, Shawnee,
Ojibwa, Algonkin, Peoria, Natick, and Delaware subjunctive mode,
present tense 290
3. Comparative table of the Fox, Shawnee, Micmac, and Peoria conjunc-
tive mode 290
ILLUSTRATION
Plate 103. Map showing the distribution and interrelation of the Algonquian
dialects — at end
223
PRELIMIMRY REPORT ON THE LINGUISTIC CUSSI-
FICATION OF ALGONQUIAN TRIBES
Bt Truman Michelson
INTRODUCTION
In order to determine the linguistic classification of the Algonquian
tribes, the writer visited in the season of 1910 the Piegan of Mon-
tana, the Northern Cheyenne of Montana, the Northern Arapaho
of Wyoming, the Menominee of Wisconsin, and the Micmac of Resti-
gouche, P. Q., Canada. Lilter in the year the Ojibwa of White
Earth (Minnesota) sent a delegation to Washington, and the occasion
was utilized to procure a few grammatical notes from them. During
the season of 1911 he visited the Fox of Iowa, and the Sauk, Kicksr
poo, and Shawnee of Oklahoma. In the winter of 191 1-12 he spent a
few weeks at the nonreservation school at Carlisle, Pa., and there had
an opportunity to obtain some notes on Northern Arapaho, the Cree
of Fort Totten (listed officially as Turtle Mountain Chippewa),
Menominee, Sauk, Ojibwa, Ottawa, Potawatomi, and Abnaki. The
results of the field work of 1911 and 1912 could be incorporated only
in the proof-sheets of the present paper. For some Algonquian
languages dependence has also been placed on the unpublished
material of the Bureau, some manuscripts of the late Dr. WiUiam
Jones (for Kickapoo) and of Mr. W. Mechling (for Malecite), and the
published material. Prof. A. L. Kroeber very kindly furnished some
of his Arapaho texts to supplement those of the writer. Prof. J.
Dyneley Prince generously offered the use of his collection of conso-
nantic clusters in Passamaquoddy and Abnaki. Owing to unforeseen
circumstances these can not be published here, but they have been of
assistance in determining the general character of Eastern Algon-
quian, and his helpfulness is appreciated. Thanks are due also to
Dr. Robert H. Lowie, of the American Museum of Natural History,
for the privilege of using some Northern Blackfoot texts. Dr.
Edward Sapir, of the Geological Survey of Canada, with character-
istic liberality, placed his field-notes on Cree, Montagnais, Abnaki,
Malecite, and Delaware (collected in the season of 1911) at the
20903**— 28 ETH— 12 15 225
226 CLASSIFICATION OF ALGONQUIAN TRIBES f bth. ann. 28
writer's disposal; but they were received too late to make possible
the insertion of extracts, except in the proof-sheets.
While it is too early to publish in detail the results of the writer's
investigations (this applies especially to Blackfoot, Cheyenne, and
Arapaho), still in view of the purely geographic classification by
Mooney and Thomas in the Handbook of American Indians,^ C. C.
Uhlenbeck in Arvthropos (iii, 773-799, 1908), and F. N. Finck in
his Die Sprachstamme des Erdekreises (Leipzig, 1909), a preliminary
linguistic report may be acceptable.
The linguistic classification of Algonquian tribes in the present
paper is based essMitially on the occurrence of consonantic clusters
and a few other phonetic phenomena, and on the pronominal forms
of the verb.
It wiU be seen that the various tables introduced throughout
this paper to illustrate grammatic forms are rather uneven, because
in many cases the writer has not ventured to abstract the personal
terminations proper from the examples given in the authorities. It
will be remembered that none of the older and only a few of the recent
writers take into account instrumental particles; the result (com-
bined with inaccurate phonetics) has been that often it is too haz-
ardous to venture an opinion as to what the form actually was.
Likewise the exclusive and inclusive first persons plural are frequently
not distinguished, and here the writer has had to follow his own
judgment.
In conclusion, his thanks are due his colleague, Dr. John R. Swanton,
for assistance in preparing the accompanpng map (pi. 103).
Notes on Pronunciation
It is believed that the reader will have little trouble in understanding the symbols
employed in this paper, as much the same system is employed as in the Handbook of
American Indian Languages (Bulletin 40, B. A. E.). However, the following notes
may prove useful.
PlEGAN :
X is post-paUtal, approximately between German ch in ich and ch in bach.
X is post-velar.
There are no sonant stops.
Cheyenne:
u; is a voiceless semivowel.
t' is bilabial.
X is the surd velar spirant.
c is the surd alveolar spirant.
I and 6 (employed by R. Petter) represent whispered vowels.
Arapauo :
X is the surd velar spirant.
^ is the same, weakly articulated.
ȣuH. so. Bur. Amer. Ethnol.
MiCHKLSON] INTRODUCTION 227
tc is an intennediate with predominating surd quality, approximately between
English c^ in church and j in judge.
& is a pure sonant.
g is post-palatal ; its sonancy is not so marked as that of &.
The surd stops are ordinarily unaspirated; when aspirated, the aspiration is indi-
cated by (').
i is very open.
9 is a surd spirant articulated between the tongue and upper teeth, nearly on the flesh.
(*) indicates aspiration.
' indicates the glottal stop.
» indicates the nasality of the vowel.
Cree(Fort Totten):
/ has the sound of obscure i.
e is long and close.
(*) indicates an aspiration; it is approximately a weak x; *t is apt to be heard as dt.
Pure surd stops are easily distinguished, but the corresponding sonants are stronger
than those of English; final g gives almost the impression of aspirated h {h*).
Cree (Rupert's House: see p. 247):
t9' is alveolar, between is and tc.
9 is close and short.
Cree (Moose):
d has the sound of long close i.
MoNTAGNAis (from Doctor Sapir's notes):
W is palatized, between ta and tc.
i is long and very open.
Menominee :
e % and o u are nearly indistinguishable.
g is very strong; finally it gives nearly the same impression as aspirated ib (£*).
Fox, Sauk, and Kickapoo:
For Fox, see Handbook of American Indian Languages {Bull. 40, B. A. E.), pt. 1,
pp. 741-746.
Here it may be remarked that in all three dialects there are no true sonants; they
are much stronger than in English.
'ib, 'i, and 'p among the younger people are but feebly to be distinguished from h, £,
and />, respectively.
tc in Fox and Sauk is intermediate, nearly between ch in chill and j in judge; in
Kickapoo it is a pure tenuis, approaching is.
The final vowels are spoken much more faintly by the younger generation than by
those advanced in years.
The writer believes Doctor Jones's hw is simply voiceless w (i/;).
Shawnee:
Surd and sonant are difficult to distinguish.
0 is the surd interdental spirant.
e % and o u are extremely difficult to distinguish.
The final vowels are somewhat more easily heard than in Fox, Sauk, and Kickapoo.
tc among the older generation is pronounced as such; among the younger people it
resembles more nearly ta in sound.
» and "» are consonants that are hardly sounded — merely indicated — in words by
themselves; a vowel preceding renders them full sounding.
(') indicates an arrest.
Ojibwa (of Baraga):
d has the sound of a.
Aloonkin (of Lemoine):
H has the sound of a.
228
CLASSIFICATION OF ALGONQUIAN TBIBES Ibth. ann.28
Ottawa:
i is long and close.
Surd and sonant (especially when final) are difficult to distinguish; final g ha6
nearly the same sound as V .
V is post-palatal.
Delaware :
n\ etc. of Zeisbeiger indicates n followed by an obscure vowel.
Abnaki (of Sapir):
/ has the sound of t.
9 has the sound of close o.
4 has the sound of nasalized obscure it.
MALBcrTB (of Sapir):
I is long and very open.
P has the sound of p weakly articulated.
Passamaquoddy :
a has the sound of oo in good.
9^ is syllabic'
MiCMAc:
has the sound of velar g; apt to be heard as r.
and ^ are syllabic.
I
ALGONQUIAN LINGUISTIC GROUPS
The Algonquian tribes linguistically fall into four major divisions,
namely: Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Arapaho, and Eastern-Central. Each
division is discussed in the following pages under the appropriate
head.
Blackfoot (Siksika)
This division includes the Piegan, Bloods, and Blackfeet proper.
According to Wissler/ the linguistic differences among the tribes
are mainly in the choice of words and idioms. The same authority
states that the Northern Blackfeet seem to differ more from the
Piegan than the latter do from the Bloods. The present writer can
describe only the language of the Piegan of Montana from personal
observation. It is characterized by an abundance of harsh conso-
nantic clusters and long consonants. The latter occur usually
between vowels but may occur in clusters. The first of the following
tables shows all the clusters ^ of two consonants found in one of the
writer's longer texts; the second, all the clusters of three consonants,
in the same text:
Initial
conso-
nant
Second member of duster
1
k
»k
ttk
1
t V
«
ti
te
k
t
m
9
t$
X
xq
it
up
xp
k9
mi
tti
iti
tte
ite
jte
Social Life of the Blackfoot Indians, p. 8, New York, 1911.
> In this and simOar tables some combina^ns are given which are not clusters in the strictest sense of
the word, but they are tntzodooed here for conTenience and on account of their importance.
229
230
CLASSIFICATION OF ALQONQUIAK TBIBES [bth. akn.28
Initial
ooDsonant
Sdoonso-
naat
Sdoonao-
nant
*
1
$
k
1
1
t
tt
V
J t
I *
•
P
r k
n
k
t
f
I ^
I 9
t»
J t
I *
I V
U
k
f
t
X
t
SUMMARY
Consonants pennltted initially: fc, f , p, n, «, to, if, x.
Consonants pennltted medially: 9, fc, (, «, to, j.
Consonants permitted finally: k, t, p, «, to.
It is likely that is and ic represent a sound intermediate between
these two. The following clusters also were noted in the same text:
xqtt, sIclcSf sispas.
' The following are all the clusters of two consonants found in three
texts of Northern Blackfoot taken down by Dr. Robert Lowie:
Tnitlal
conso*
nant
Second member of duster
9
k
P
9
X
t9
fc
g
t
P
9
Jt
m
9k
xk
tofc
xg
9t
xt
»P
xp
fc«
p*
X9
t99
9t9
Xto
xm
It is clear that xg is due to mishearing.
MICHEL80N]
ALGONQUIAN UKGUI8TIC GBOUPS
231
The following table shows all the clusters of three consonants
in the same texts:
Initial
fionaonant
adconflo-
nant
adoonao-
nant
k
•
k
P
1
1
k
t
P
»
k
1 «.
k
a
k
U
tt
k
X
k
9
P
t
a
t
The following cluster of four consonants occurs in the same texts:
xkst
It will be seen by comparing the tables of such other Algonquian
languages as have numerous clusters that such a condition as obtains
in Blackfoot (Piegan) is unique. So far as the writer can judge,
the clusters are genuine, not pseudo. The origin of most of them
is obscure.^ Some are due to the assibilation of t before {.' It is
likely that the cluster sk is original, as can be demonstrated for st
in certain cases. For the latter, note nestoa^ i (chances not to occur
in the writer's texts); Cree nista i also; and the instrumental st in
nitcitAnistdw^ i said to him (ni — aw^ i — hem; stem Aui) is to be asso-
ciated with a similar instrumental in Cree.^
However, the formation of the verbal compounds is typically
Algonquian and most of the personal terminations of the present
independent mode are patently Algonquian. The terminations in
'pinnan^ (e. g., ni — pinndn^ we [excl.]) are to be associated with
Fox 'pen^, Passamaquoddy -lAfi. Similarly, hi — puwdvxi ye, is to
be connected with Fox and Shawnee -pvj^y Passamaquoddy -ba. The
form hir—dvxLvj^ ye — him has an exact equivalent in Cree and Meno-
minee. The forms ni — dv)^, Jci — dw^ i — ^him, thou — him, respectively,
agree with Cree, Fox, Menominee, and Delaware (one form) as
opposed to Ojibwa, Algonkin, Shawnee, and Eastern Algonquian.
Forms like hi — oxpiuTidn^ we — thee, you (not in writer's texts;
based on Tims; cf. Uhlenbeck, op. cit., p. 8, bottom) certainly sug-
> For one or two probable aooixses besides those given liere, see p. 332.
1 This change has been already noted by C. C. Uhlenbeck, Original BlacUbot Texts, p. W, Amsterdam,
1011.
* J. W. Tims, Grammar and Dictionary of the Blackfoot Language, London, 1880.
* J. Horden, Cree Grammar, p. 00, London, 1881.
232
CLASSIFICATION OF ALQOKQUIAN TBIBES [bth. ann. 28
gest Passamaquoddy Tc — If en, which might be taken for Tc — vlpen, but
as a matter of fact the u has nothing to do with the termination;
owing to the phonetics of the language if a vowel following I is elimi-
nated; thereby causing the I to become final or inmiediately to pre-
cede a consonant; the preceding vowel takes an o or a u tinge (see
the discussion of Eastern Algonquian, p. 283). Now is it not possible
that there is a similar phenomenon in Piegan and that the termina-
tion should really be given as H — xpinnan^, in which the x represents
a secondary change of original n, as does the I of the Passamaquoddy
form ? ^ The same query would apply to certain other forms not
dealt with here.
To judge from TimS; the termination for tt?e(excl.) — him agrees in
formation with Cree and Ojibwa. The agreement with the latter is
no doubt purely fortuitous.
Forms like nestoa (Tims) i show agreement with Cree.
According to the writer's information some demonstrative pronouns
have reference to the state of the object designated; that is, whether
at rest or in motion; but some informants contradict this. It is a
matter that deserves special attention.
Summing up; we may say that though Blackfoot must be classed
apart from Eastern-Central Algonquian; it has the closest affinities
to FoX; Eastern Algonquian; and Cree.
Cheyenne
Cheyenne possesses consonantic clusters; though not in so great
profusion as Piegan. By consulting the various tables it will be seen
that some of the clusters are pecuUar to the language. As is men-
tioned more than once in this paper; the fact that such Algonquian
languages as have numerous clusters differ with respect to the types
of clusters tends to show that most of these are unoriginal.
The following clusters of two consonants were noted in three of
the writer's Cheyenne texts:
Initial
oon-
sonant
Second member of cluster
k
i
n
9
fU
X9
V9
e
t9
U9
9U
xU
m
V
t
n
9
€
19
X
tk
9k
dt
t9k
xk
9t
et
It
un
ne
ve
ev
1 Or it may be that the original sound is lost and that the z Is an accretion, as r in ki—ifimw&wa tb—
lfB(cf. Fox ke-'ipva).
MICHEL80X1 ALGONQUIAN LINGUISTIC GROUPS 233
The cluster tsn so far as noted is a pseudo-cluster, but the others,
so far as the writer has been able to analyze them, are genuine.
The following clusters of three consonants were noted in the same
texts: nstj xst, mat, nsts, stn, the last being certainly a false one.
The foUowing clusters were noted as occurring finally: sts, ns, nets
xs, vs. A single cluster (at) was observed initially, and that but
once; hence it is likely an initial vowel was not heard.
The origin of the clusters that apparently are genuine is practi-
cally unknown. One case of xp seems merely to have developed
hojn p, e. g., woxpi white (Fox wdpi). The clusters sJc and st are
probably original (see discussion of Oee, p. 238. Unfortunately the
writer has not been able to find co^esponding expressions in Cree
for such Cheyenne words as possess these clusters).
There are a number of words of patent Algonquian origin. Exam-
ples are: woxpi white, maho'wiw^ wolf, nic two, nive four,
mataxtu^ ten, matama*^ old woman, nd and, misi eat, mi give,
ami MOVE.
It should be noted that under unknown conditions Central Algon-
quian n appears as t (compare the treatment in Cree, p. 239; but the
two languages do not agree wholly in the usage) ; furthermore, this
secondary t, as well as original t, becomes is before a palatal vowel.
Examples are hitan/^ man (Fox ineniw^)^ nitanowitatsi'm^ let us
GAMBLE TOGETHER (tei = Fox, etc, tl). Original Jc under unknown
conditions appears as n. This, together with the other phonetic
changes stated above, renders most of the forms of the independent
mode inteUigible. Thus, ni — ts i — ^thee; ni — tsemS i — you; ni —
tsemend WE(excl.) — ^thee; ni — imend thou — us(excl.).* It will be
noted that the structure for i — ^You, we (excl.) — thee agrees with
Natick, Algonkin, and Peoria. The terminations for we (excl. and
incL), intransitive, approximate the Ojibwa type. The termination
for YOU (intrans.) is m — m* (Fetter ni — m^), which phonetically
approximates Algonkin, Ottawa, and Ojibwa rather than Peoria.
(It may here be mentioned that Peoria, Ottawa, and Ojibwa all
belong to the same division of the Central Algonquian languages.)
The termination for WE(excl.) — him (wo — on. Fetter) has a corre-
spondent in Natick and Eastern Algonquian. The terminations with
the third person singular animate as subject are obscure. Those
with the inanimate plural as objects patently are to be connected with
the nominal sufiSx for the inanimate plural. With the assumption
that original intervocalic g is lost, some additional forms take on a
more Algonquian appearance. So violent a change is paralleled by
the apparent change of -/)(ii)m- to -m- and -p(-i)*- to -xt-.
* Tbe last three forms are taken from Rodolphe Fetter's Sketch of the Cheyemie Grammar, in Mtm,
Amer. Antiir. Att., i, pt. 6, 1907.
234 CLASSIFICATION OF ALGOKQUIAN TRIBES [bth. ans. 28
Cheyenne possesses a mode that is frequently used in narration as .
an indicative; it happens that but few of the forms occur in the
writer's texts. The third person singular animate, intransitive, ends
in 'S; the third person plural animate, intransitive, in -vma (the initial
sound is represented by w merely for convenience. The writer has
been unable to determine its exact value; it is heard now as v, now
as w; the only thing absolutely certfiin is that it is bilabial) ; he — ^him
is -us; THEY (an.) — htm -ovms; to distinguish third persons, the intran-
sitive third person has an obviative -mvma. Assuming the phonetic
change of tc to 8, it will be seen that the forms resemble the Fox,
Shawnee, and Peoria conjunctive. The ni of -nivms corresponds to
the ni of Fox -nitci, etc.
The termination of the plural inanimate can be derived from the
normal Central Algonquian termination by the phonetic laws stated
above. At the same time it greatly resembles the Natick and Piegan
forms, which apparently can not be derived from this source.
Summing up, we may say that although Cheyenne must be classed
as a distinct major branch of Algonquian languages, yet it has close
affinities with the Ojibwa division of the Eastern-Central major divi-
sion ; but as consonantic clusters beginning with a nasal and followed
by a stop are not permitted, and the clusters sk and st occur, we
must assume rather a more northern origin. If the Moiseyu really
are the Monsoni, as James Mooney thinks {Mem. Antkr, Ass., i,
369, 1907), there is historical support for this assumption. The
fact that Natick in the ending of the termination of the present
independent mode resembles the Ojibwa type probably led Petter
(ibid., 447) to consider Cheyenne * closer to Natick. The latter
does permit consonantic clusters with a nasal as the prior member
and a stop as the second member, but it does not agree entirely with
Ojibwa in this usage; note especially the present suppositive (sub-
junctive) mode. But it should be noted that the cluster st is not
permitted, though sh is; and the cluster st is a distinct trait of
Algonquian languages of northern origin (cf. Eastern Algonquian,
Montagnais, Cree, Blackfoot).
Arapaho
This division includes Arapaho proper, Gros Ventre (Atsina), two
dialects that are on the verge of extinction, and one dialect that at
present is either absolutely extinct or is spoken by only veiy few indi-
1 Aooording to the writer's present information there are two Sutaio (a tribe that became incorporated
with the Cheyenne) who can still speak their own language, namely, White Bull (Ice) of the Northern Chey-
enne and Left Hand Bull of the Southern Cheyenne. Unfortunately the former ceased work before any texts
could be secured from him, and the writer has heard only recently of the latter's ability to speak his own
language. For this reason no accurate idea of the language can be given here. Cheyenne traditions are
unanlmouSt however, in stating that the language was intelligible to the Cheyenne.
MiCHBLBON] ALGONQUIAK UKGUISTIC GROUPS 235
viduals. The writer can describe from personal investigation only
Arapaho proper; he has been informed by members of this tribe that
Gros Ventre is readily understood by them. According to Dr. A. L.
Ejoeber, the dialect mentioned as possibly absolutely extinct closely
resembled Blackfoot; according to information received, the Piegan of
Montana say a body of them joined the Arapaho and still speak their
own language. This matter requires careful investigation. It is to be
hoped that Doctor Kroeber will publish at an early date his comparar
tive vocabularies of the dialects and also those phonetic laws of
Arapaho proper that he has discovered and courteously communicated
to the writer.
That Arapaho is an Algonquian language is shown by such words
as h/vne'n man, niHeFe unr eldeb bbotheb, no'^iAn^ mt daughter,
m'^ My OBANDOHILD, f^ TWO, TULsA THREE, y«%< FOUB, KUMaX TEN,
laiebi old woman, net& bct heart, h&^sUd^^ rr is hot; as well as by
the system of the possessive pronouns. Some of the more radical
phonetic changes that the author has observed (some of these had
been anticipated by Doctor Kroeber) are tc becomes 0\ -nid, Fox -niUf;
p becomes d: mete' water, Fox nep*, netc' my arrow. Fox nip*; Tc be-
comes h: hi- THY, Fox ie-, hAw^ not, Ojibwa Jcdwin; p becomes gik):
amgd* duck. Fox didip^; w becomes n: no^hu rabbit, Ojibwa wd'pos;
m becomes h (and w'i): bdtehi old woman, Fox metevno'^f bdt&tAX ten;
slew becomes «': wax*^ bear, Cree mAskwAy Fox 7na*hw^, With the
assumption that y becomes n, and 9 + , a final whispered vowel, becomes
*, a number of verbal pronominal forms grow clearer in formation.
(How these changes may distort words almost beyond recognition
may be shown by ni*tcehgdhut^ he buns by: m(*) is a common verbal
prefix (?); tceb « Fox pemi; gdhu = Fox -pdho-; -f the pronominal
ending.) Doctor Kroeber has already remarked that in nominal
forms the inanimate and animate plurals are not distinguished, though
they are in verbal forms.* The exclusive and inclusive first person
plurals are not distinguished in verbal forms, according to information
received by the writer, but they certainly are in the possessive pro-
noims. It is thus seen that Arapaho has become very specialized.
In the writer's judgment, no Algonquian language has deviated
farther from the normal.
Arapaho is characterized by very weak nasal vowels, which when
pronounced rapidly, however, betray scarcely any nasaUty. The
glottal stop is extremely common. There are a number of conso-
nantic clusters, but none of more than two consonants.
1 8«e BuUdin cfiht American Museum of Natural Hittorp, vol. xvm, p. 5, 1902.
236
CLASSIFICATION OF ALGONQUIAN TBIBE8 [bth. axk. 28
The following table shows all the consonantic clusters found m the
writer's Arapaho notes of 1912:
Initial
oonso-
oant
Arapaho
B«cond member of cluster
k
if
t
n
tc
»
t
tn
t
b
^
bn
U
$
tk
4t
tn
9
X
tg
Xt
xn
xte
It has not been feasible to separate genuine and pseudo clusters.
The X before t and tc is exceedingly weak. The clusters in the
writer's Arapaho notes of 1910 were of the same general character
but contained dg^ dd, On, and vn also. No. clusters begin or end a
word.
It will be seen that the clusters differ fundamentally in character
from those of Piegan, Cheyenne, and Eastern Algonquian. This fact
points decidedly to the clusters, with certain exceptions, in all of these
languages as secondary m nature and not original.
The grammatical analysis is extremely difficult. It is clear that
many secondary phonetic changes have taken place in the welded
verbal compound, and so have obscured the stems. However, a
sufficient number are clear enough to warrant the assertion that the
general structure of Arapaho agrees essentially with the general
analysis of Algonquian given by Dr. William Jones. The instru-
mental particles occur in the correct position. Of these the writer
has been able to recognize h (Fox, etc., m; no m exists in Arapaho),
n, h, t, w.
The personal pronouns of the independent mode (with certain
apparent exceptions in the negative verb) are suffixed. Here is a
very striking difference between Arapaho and normal Algonquian.
The fact that the terminations are suffixed (not partially prefixed and
partially suffixed) suggests that in origin they are conjunctive endings
(compare Micmac), and so far as the writer has been able to find cog-
nates at all for them (in only a decided minority of instances), it has
been with the terminations of this mode. Doctor Kroeber, above cited,
has noted that Cheyenne tin as the prefix of the second person singu-
lar, independent mode, apparently corresponds with Arapaho -n.
This the writer considers improbable, as it would be incredible that in
Arapaho a verbal pronoun that in all other Algonquian languages is
prefixed, should be suffixed.
MICHEL80N] ALGONQUIAN UNGUISTIC GBOUPS 237
There are some formations that seem thoroughly un-Algonquian;
e. g. MOo^hoJc HE, SHE TOLD HIM, HEB, THEM (an.); the obviative of
which is MOl^hok. This formation is rare ; the vrriter has met it but
a few timeS; always in words of the same, or approximately the same,
meaning. The stem of the examples given is hok;' M is allied with
hel; so far as known at present there are no phonetic equivalents for
the incorporated pronominal elements in any other Algonquian lan-
guage. The prefixing of the termination for he — him, heb, them (an.)
before the initial stem is thoroughly un-Algonquian, and can not be
paralleled elsewhere in these languages. The occurrence of the
objective pronominal elements immediately after an initial prefix (?)
is another anomaly.
To sum up, Arapaho seems to have become specialized at an early
period, but it is likely that when the phonetics of the language are
better understood more points in common with Eastern-Central
Algonquian will become apparent; and it is possible that borrowing-
from a non-Algonquian stock may be shown.
Eastebn-Centbal
Although the Eastern branch presents considerable di£Ferences
from the Central branch — chiefly in the abundance of consonantic
clusters — it is perfectly obvious that, compared with Blackfoot,
Cheyenne, or Arapaho, it belongs intimately with the Central group.
See the discussion of Eastern Algonquian (p. 280).
CENTBAL SUBTYPE
All these dialects are very intimately connected. To say that one
dialect is not closely connected with another means merely that the
relations between the two are not so close as between one of the
dialects and a third. The lexical correspondence is very marked and
the correspondence in the grammatical terminations is close. In the
independent mode (or indicative mode) the correspondence is not so
close as in the subjunctive. The reason for this is probably that in
the latter case there is nothing to connect the personal endings
with, and that in transitive forms the single pronouns (which are
always suflSxed) expressing both subject and object are so specialized
that it is not possible readily to analyze them into their component
elements, whereas the pronominal endings of the independent mode
are unquestionably to be associated with the possessive pronoims
and therefore vary more. (The Sauk, Fox, and Kickapoo forms
in -peTia, the Shawnee forms in -p^, and the Sauk, Fox, Kickapoo,
and Shawnee forms in -pwa are wholly anomalous.) However, in
the case of the independent mode, the analysis is far clearer than in
238 CLASSIFICATION OF AIXK>KQUIAX TBIBES rcTH-AXX. 28
Other modes. The transitive forms are based mainly on the combin-
ation of intransitive ones, sometimes part being prefixed and part
suffixed, or. both parts are suffixed. In certain forms it is necessary
to assume certain pronominal elements which are totally unconnected
with the possessive or independent pronouns, but which nevertheless
reoccur in other modes than the independent.
The writer's classification of the dialects of the Central subtype is
based on a study of the present independent and subjunctive modes,
together with phonetic and a few other considerations.
It is possible to formulate certain subdivisions of the group. These
are —
Cree-Montagnais.
Menominee.
Sauk, Fox, Kickapoo, together with Shawnee, the last-named being
somewhat removed from them.
Ojibwa, Potawatomi, Ottawa, Algonkin, with Peoria somewhat
removed from them.
Natick.
Delaware.
It may be further noted that Cree-Montagnais, Menominee, Sauk,
Fox, Ejckapoo, and Sliawnee collectively form a unit as compared
with any other of the subdivisions.
Creb-Montaonais
GHEE
Cree is characterized by the maintenance of the clusters sk, sp, st
(ck, cp, ct), which in other members of the Central group (with certain
limitations noted below) are converted to 't, 'p, H, respectively.^ It is a
special point of contact with Eastern Algonquian that these are like-
wise retained in them. Examples are Cree amisk (Lacombe) beaver,
Stockbridge (Edwards) amisqucy Ojibwa ami^Tcj Delaware amocKk,
.Fox ame^hif^ (Shawnee liamdkwa, Gatschet), Peoria amakwa, Abnaki
pepSn-emeskS (Rasles) winter beaver, Micmac pdlrHmsJcw beaver
OF THIRD year;' Cree miskawew he finds him, her, Malecite mus--
Jcuwan HE FOUND HER, Natick misJcom he finds it, Fox me'Jcawd'uf^
HE finds him, her; Oee iskwe'u woman, Micmac Jcesigd-eshw^ old
WOMAN, Natick squaw, Fox i'Jcwdw^, Ojibwa xlewd, Delaware
vxhwdu (Sapir); Cree rrtAshwA bear. Fox ma^Jcw^, Shawnee ^kwa,
Peoria maxJcwa, Ojibwa ma'icwa, Natick mosq; Cree ishpimxk above,
Ojibwa ishpimingj Menominee icpdmiyA above, Penobscot spumJci
I Moreover, under unlmown conditions a sibilant is retained before fc in Fox, Ojibwa, etc., and those agree
in the retention or loss of the sibilant.
> Band, Dictionary of the Language of the Micmac Indians, Halifax, 1888.
ifXCHiLSON] AL60NQUIAN LINGUISTIC OBOUP8 239
HEAVEN, Abnaki spemJc, Passamaquoddy apetnek high, Shawnee
apemegi above (in the sky), Fox a'pemegi, Peoria pdmingi; Cree
micpun rr snows, Fox me'pvr to snow, Natick muhpoo rr snows;
Cree mictig wood. Fox meHegvyi, Shawnee Hegwi^ Menominee me'tig
(probable mishearing for me'tig)j Ojibwa mVtig (Jones), me^tig (Turtle
Mountain, Michelson), Natick mehiugj Delaware TnehiUuck, Minsi
michtuk.^
It -should be noted likewise that Cree t(jU) corresponds under
unknown conditions to n (or its phonetic correspondent) in the other
Central Algonquian languages as well as in Eastern Algonquian. Thus
Cree ataJc stab. Fox Andgw^f Shawnee dlagwa, Peoria alangwa,
Ojibwa anang, Delaware dUanquey Natick anogks; Oee- atim dog,.
Fox Auemo*^, Natick anum, Delaware aUum, Ojibwa animosJiy Malecite
yJamus (the last two really are diminutives).'
Below will be found tables for the Cree present indicative and sub-
junctive-participial modes.* The phonetic laws stated above should
be kept in mind to see the correspondence with other Algonquian
languages.
1 It is gathered from Doctor Gatschet's notes on the pronunciation and his graphic fluctuation of k, %
xk in the same words when corresponding to Cree tk , that the true value in Peoria is 'k . By this is infwred
the same regarding p. Examples are lacking to show the correspondent to Cree W, but the inference made
at any rate is plausible. The writer's conclusions regarding Fox, Sauk, Kickapoo are based on Doctor Jones's
and his own texts; those on Shawnee are from Doctor Oatschet's graphic variants as well as the author's
own notes (but apparently there are also some secondary changes in Shawnee); those on Menominee rest
on the writer's own notes; those on Ojibwa are formed mainly from a study of Doctor Jones's texts, though
partly from the writer's notes; in other cases the assumption rests on analogy. The quotations from the
manuscripts of the late Doctor Jones are available through the liberality of the Carnegie Institution of
Washington. Most of the OJlbwa words cited in this papa- are from Baraga; they are easily distinguished by
lack of most diacritical marks and by the use of ah for e. Similarly, the Ciee of the writer can be easily
distinguished ttom that of Horden or Laoombe. Such words and grammatical terminations as are taken
fkom or based on Doctor Sapir's field notes on Cree, Montagnais, Abnaki, Malecite, and Delaware, are
expressly noted as such.
* Abnaki wdamit ma dog, Passamaquoddy ndemU my xk>q, both cited by Prince, are forms pnssllng to
the writer. See American AtUhropologiH, M. s., iv, 316, 317, 324, 684. Even so, the statement that Cree
t can correspond to n, etc., of the other dialects, will stand.
* These are extracted fh>m Ilorden (Cree Grammar, London, 1881) with the excepttonof the hiani-
mate forms both as subjects and objects, which are extracted fh^m Laoombe. The latter forms are not
readily found in Horden and the table in Laoombe is highly confusing in other forms. That the forms
exist in Moose Cree is shown by the texts in Borden's Grammar.
240
CUISSIFIGATION OF ALOONQUIAK TBIBES Ibth.ann.28
9
£
^
•3
1
f
4< rf«
s
o
ii??
8
11
li
I I I
ii
o
I
^ ^ "^
Sill
I
M 1
I I I I I
91
11
II
i
I I I
mil
9
a
• — _:•••« 9
So S
. X e „ s 5
I S S -c S. •? -c -"
9
a
s
J3
^
^
%
M
1^
I
IS
8
I III
9 & »
§ ^ I i <(
g
&
•? I ?
I I
1 1
? ?<!
I I
SI
Y
I ??
I I I I
I I
3 I
1 '
S I
s I
^
II g
i
- 5 1
1 11 ?
Iff
' ' ' 1 8 .
? I 1 11 I
::::::•§
' ' , •
7: — • • • s
« 2 « SJ a E o
9 3 £ >t ,c s
MiCHJiLSONj ALOONQUIAN LIKOUISTIG GBOUPS 241
While at Carlisle in the winter of 1911-12 the writer had an oppor-
tunity of studying for a brief period the Cree spoken at Fort Tottan,
North Dakota. Below are tables for the present independent mode
and for what was intended (by the writer) to be the subjunctive of
the same tense. Apparently there was some misunderstanding, for
the forms of the latter correspond with Lacombe's "suppositif " of
the ^'subjonctif" and Horden^s future tense of the subjunctive.
20903^—28 BTH— 12 16
242
CLASSIFICATION OF ALQONQUIAN TBIBES Tbth. ann.28
•^
?
i
^
^
ja
?
ft
I
1
s
I
!
^
e
«^ • IB ^
ttk •• 2 ^
^1 ? ?
Ok
ft a M M M t t I
I X 1 1 1 5 5 ^
e
I.
II
I I I
1 s 1
tfi
7T7
••• •«• 'mm
M M M
A
II,?
I TT
••• 1 •mm •mm
M M
T7T
M ^ M
I I I
I I e e «
'8 'SI
TT7
•«• ■«• •«■
M M M
I e e « «s e
' 1 *! S IS *§
T T T T T
2 S S 'S 5
S
I I I
IS S d S s
TtTTT
-' -^ 'S •? •?
M M
t
9§
I
S
iX3
^
^
ll
t
I
■Y -Y ? -Y ?
I I I
T T
I
•?•?
t
e
•^
•s5
T T
ill
? ? -?
1 9 la
at M T*
? ? ?
M ^ ^
? ^ •? ■? 7
-^^
e
%
I I I
S
?
t "^ "^
I I I
§ a as s:
9 a
MiCHBLSONl ALGOKQUIAN LINGUISTIC GROUPS 243
We will first discuss the indicative forms. In the following Mon-
tagnais is left out, as the relations of Cree and Montagnais are treated
specially below. Here it is sufficient to say that the two with pho-
netic differences are essentially a linguistic unit. Statistics follow:
I — YOU (pi.) no correspondent; composed of the intrans. forms for
I and YOU with phonetic changes.
I — HIM agreement with F., Men., D. (one form).^
I — THEM an. agreement with F., Men., D. (one form).
I— IT agreement with Men., A., Oj.
I — ^THEM inan. agreement with Men., S.
WE (excl.) intrans. agreement with D. (one form).
WE (excl.) — ^THEE agreement with D. (one form).
WE (excl.) — YOU agreement with D. (one form).
WE (excl.) — ^HiM agreement with Oj., A., D. (one form).
WB (excl.) — THEM an. agreement with Oj., A., N.
WE (excl.) — IT agreement with A.
WE (excl.) — ^THEM inan. formation same as we (excl.) — rr.
WE (incl.) intrans. (Horden) no correspondent.
w^ (incl.) intrans. (FortTotten) agreement with Oj., A.
WE (incl.) — HIM (Horden) ; cf . Men.*
WE (incl.) — HIM (Fort Totten) agreement Oj., A.
WE (incl.) — THEM an. (Horden) no correspondent, cf. Men.*
WE (incl.) — ^THEM an. (Fort Totten) agreement with Oj., A.
WE (incl.) — IT (one form, Lacombe) no correspondent.
WE (incl.) — IT (one form, Lacombe; Fort Totten) agreement
with A.
WE (incl.) — THEM inan. formation same as we (incl.) — it.
THOU — us (excl.) no correspondent; composed of thou intrans.
-hi+nan." cf. Fox Jce — ipena for the formation.
thou — HIM agreement with Men., F., D. (one form)^
THOU — THEM an. agreement with Men., F. D.
thou — IT agreement with Men., Oj., A.
THOU — ^THEM inan. formation the same as thou — it. .
YE intrans. no correspondent; same formative elements found in
YE — ME.
YE — ME no correspondent; composed of the intrans. form for ye +i,
YE — us (excl.) no correspondent; formation precisely the same as
THOU — us (excl.).
YE — HIM agreement with Men., D. (one form); cf. also Oj., A., S.,
N., Pass.
1 The following are the principal abbreviations used in this paper: A., Algonkin; an., animate; C,
Cree; D., Delaware; excl., exclusive; F., Fox; inan., inanimate; incl., inclusive; M., Micmac; Men.,
Menominee; Mont., Montagnais; N., Natick; OJ., Ojibwa; Ot., Ottawa; P., Peoria; Pass., Passama-
quoddy; Pot., Potawatomi; S., Shawnee.
* Laoombe gives a variant that agrees absolutely with Menominee.
244 CLASSIFICATION OF ALOONQXHAN TBIBES [■th.akk.28
YE — THEM an. agreement with Men., D. (one form); cf. also Oj.
A.., C^«j ^.
YE — TT no correspondent; cf. Oj., A., S.
YE — THEM inan. formation the same as ye — ^rr.
HE — us (excl.) agreement with F., Oj., A., D. (one form).
HE — us (incl.; Horden) agreement with Men.
HE — ^us (incl.; Fort Totten) agreement with F., Oj., A. (D.?).
HE — ^You agreement with F., Men.
HE — HIM agreement with F., Men. (N.I).
HE — THEM an. agreement with F., Men.
HE — IT agreement with F., Men., P., Oj. (one form).
HE — THEM inan. agreement with F., Men., P.
THEY an. — tjs (excl.) agreement withF., Oj., A., N., D. (one form).
THEY an. — us (incl.; Horden) agreement with Men.
THEY an. — us (incl.; Fort Totten) agreement with F., ()j., D.
THEY an. — ^You agreement with F., Men., D.
THEY an. — ^HiM agreement with F., Men.
THEY an. — THEM an. agreement with F., Men.
THEY an. — ^rr agreement mth F., Men., P.
THEY an. — T^EM inan. agreement with F., Men., P.
THEY inan. no correspondent.
Common Central Algonquian agreements are naturally not included
in the above statistics. Phonetic changes have caused certain termi-
nations to resemble Ojibwa rather than Fox, e. g., he — me, thee, but
these are not included, as the formation is identical. The customaiy
final n is not here added to the forms for i and thou when intransitive,
as it seems to be purely a phonetic product. The forms for they
an. — ^ME, thbe look strange in comparison with other Algonquian
languages, but in the writer's opinion a phonetic archaism is the dis-
turbing factor.
It may be mentioned here that in the statistics given in the dis-
cussion of other Central Algonquian languages they inan. intrans. is
not noted, as. all agree (so far as material is available), as opposed to
Cree. It will be seen that the greatest number of agreements is with
Menominee, with Fox (Sauk and Kickapoo) second, and Delaware,
Ojibwa, and Algonkin about equal, in the third place. The statistics
likewise show that the unity of Cree-Montagnais, Menominee, Sauk,
Fox, Eickapoo, and Shawnee mentioned on page 238 applies espe-
cially to Cree-Montagnais, Menominee, Sauk, Fox, and Kickapoo. It
is due almost entirely to the very intimate relationship between Sauk,
Fox, Eickapoo on the one hand and Shawnee on the other (see
pp. 252, 258) that the last-mentioned language must be attached to
the group. (Sauk, Fox, Eackapoo are practically one language, with
slight variations (see pp. 252, 258). In the entire discussion of the
UICHBL80N] ALOONQUIAN UNGUISTIC GBOUPS 245
statistics throughout this paper it is understood that all are in agree-
ment, unless the contrary is expressly stated.)
The discussion of the subjunctive-participial does not require such
elaborate statistics.
The variant forms of the third person plural animate both as sub-
ject and object, ending in -w, are stated by Horden to be distinctive of
East Main Cree, with the exception of the variants for they an. — ^him,
THEM an. which occur elsewhere as well. The forms under discussion
closely resemble the correspondents in Menominee, Algonkin, Ojibwa,
and (to a lesser extent) Ottawa. (In Ojibwa they an. — us excl.
has different formation, but has the characteristic ending.) More-
over, the respective forms of the second table of Fort Totten Cree
(which is discussed below) show the same general structure. The
other forms of the third person an. plural as both subject and object
(except HE — ^THEM an., which is a true subjunctive) correspond to the
Fox, Shawnee, and Ojibwa participial — not subjunctive. Even so,
THEY an. — us (excl.) agrees with Fox (and approximates the Shawnee
form), not Ojibwa. i— you agrees with Menominee, Ojibwa, and
Algonkin. we (excl.) — thee, you is a true active conmion Central
Algonquian form as opposed to the Ojibwa (and probably Potawa-
tomi) correspondents, which are passives in structure.
Outside the above, excluding phonetic differences, as the presence
of the nasal in Ojibwa (also in Delaware), the agreement between
Cree, Ojibwa, and Fox in this mode is remarkable. It is a matter
of great regret that hardly a single transitive form of the Peoria sub-
j unctive or participial is found among Doctor Gatschet's papers. The
terminations of the participial, subjunctive, and conjunctive modes
are closely allied in Algonquian (compare the tables in the Hand-
book of American Indian Languages). Fortunately Doctor Oatschet
has left examples of transitive forms of the Peoria conjunctive, so
we can make some conjectures concerning the subjunctive. It pos-
sessed the nasal as in Ojibwa, and the forms for the third person
plural animate, both as subject and object, corresponded exactly
with the exception of we incl. — ^them an., they an. — him, them
an., to Cree. The personal terminations for we — thee, you (pi.)
were the true active ones; he — us (excl.) agreed with Fox and Cree,
as also that for they an. — us (excl.). (For the last two cf. Shaw-
nee, Algonkin, and Menominee.) The form for i — you (pi.) agreed
with Ojibwa, Algonkin, and Cree. Herein we find an important
point of contact with Peoria. (See, however, p. 271.) It should be
noted that the Micmac conjunctive agrees partially with Peoria in
having forms for the third person plural animate both as subject
and object that correspond to the Fox participial, not conjunctive.
We may accordingly conjecture that the Micmac subjunctive agrees
partially with Cree in the same way. This together with the reten-
246 CLASSIFICATION OF ALGONQUIAN XBIBES [bth. axn. 28
tion of the consonantic clusters sky sp, si constitute important points
of contact between Cree and Eastern Algonquian. The Natick present
subjunctive approximates closely to the Fox present subjunctive and
so agrees to a certain extent with Cree, but it should be noticed that
practically all the forms with the third person animate, singular and
plural, as subject are entirely different in structure from either the
Cree or the Fox correspondents. The Delaware subjunctive shows
marked peculiarities of its own and therefore presents few points of
agreement with Cree, none in fact which are not shared by other
Central Algonquian languages.
The discussion of the second table of Fort Totten Cree must necech
sarily be brief, as the sole object of its introduction is to illustrate
the variant forms of East Main Cree with the third person plural as
subject and object in the present subjunctive, and the correspondents
in Menominee and Ojibwa. As is stated above, the table really corre-
sponds with Horden's future tense of the subjunctive and Lacombe's
''suppositif " of the "subjonctif." The forms for he, they an. —
us (excl. and incl.), you are certainly passives in formation (cf. the'
Ottawa correspondents of the subjunctive); but in every case
Lacombe gives variants which are actives, and Horden gives these
alone. Again the variants given by Lacombe for we (excl. and incl.)
— ^HiM, THEH an.; ye — him, them an. (which alone are given by
Horden) in structure have the same formation as the correspond-
ents of the present subjunctive. The Fort Totten Cree forms are
composed of the respective intransitive subjects combined with the
common objective form of the third person animate, namely a, which
undergoes phonetic change before the initial y of the suffixes (the
forms given by Lacombe do not show this change). The forms of
the Fort Totten Cree in which the animate objects are plural exhibit
the identical formation but have the characteristic w suffix. (The
form given in the table for ye — them an. is. reconstructed by the
writer; the form -Atwdwi, obtained by direct questioning, is surely
due to some misunderstanding, as it patently is the form for thou —
them an. It should be noticed that in the forms for we (excl. and
incl.) — him; we (excl.) — ^thee, you; thou, ye — us (excl.) Lacombe's
Cree terminates in -i, not -u as Fort Totten Cree does. Li the forms
.... . /
for WE (excl. and incl.) intransitive, we (excl. and incl.) — rr, them
(inan.), Lacombe gives forms with both -i and -u. Horden gives
only the forms with -a (his transcription for long close ^) corre-
sponding to Lacombe's -^. Fort Totten Cree in these personal
terminations has -u, and this only. It should be mentioned that
corresponding to Horden's t before -a (his symbol for long close
f ), the Cree of Lacombe and of Fort Totten have tc (tj in Lacombe)
before -i throughout. Again, Horden's Cree in the form for ye
MiCHBLSON] ALGONQUIAN LINGUISTIC GBOUPS 247
intrans. ends in -wd, whereas Lacombe's and Fort Totten Cree end
in *u. It should be added that Lacombe in the forms for he — ^them
an. and thet an. — rr, them inan. gives variants which resemble the
corresponding subjunctive (participial) ones in structure, as well as
forms which agree with the Fort Totten correspondents. It need
scarce be said that neither Lacombe nor Horden distinguishes surd
and sonant, nor 'Jc from tr, in his paradigms.
The formation of a preterite with a sufiix pun in both the indica-
tive and the subjunctive is an important point of contact with Ojibwa
(see the discussion of that language, p. 269).
Another special point of contact with Peoria that should be noted
is that the inanimate plural, nominative, ends in -a; yet notwith-
standing these points of contact with Cree, Peoria (as wiU be shown
later) belongs rather with Ojibwa.
The dialectic variations as nlna i, nlra, nlya, rvida are well known
and need no discussion. However, it should be mentioned that the
so-called Cree of Rupert's House ^ is not Cree at all, but Montagnais.
This the writer infers from a comparison of Doctor Sapir's notes on
the Cree of Rupert's House vdth his notes on Montagnais, as well as
with Lemoine's Dictionnaire Fran^ais^Montagnais (Boston, 1901).
The following (taken from Sapir's manuscripts) will illustrate the
point under consideration: mA'skwAts' bears, niJcA'mgwais thet
siNO, ts' inUcA'mgTh thou singest. (See the discussion of Montagnais
below.) According to Skinner (loc. cit.), the Fort George Indians
speak the same dialect as those at Rupert's House.
MONTAGNAIS
As was stated above, excluding phonetic changes Montagnais is
practically the same language as Cree. Some of the phonetic changes
which Montagnais has suffered are: Ic (Cree X;, Fox Ic) becomes Uh
before i (Fox e and t, Cree e) , tahir thou (verbal) , Fox Tee-, Cree fce-,
tahi- initial stem meaning completion. Fox H[a]-, Cree Ice-; Je (Cree Jc,
Fox g) becomes ta before final i and e, even if these are lost, -itto
(ending of animate pi. of nouns), Cree -uk, Fox -Aff^j -via (third person
pi. animate, independent mode, intransitive), Cree -wuk, Fox -wa^, -48
(sign of locative singular animate), Cree -%, Fox -^, -iaJta (first person
pi. excl. intransitive, subj unctive mode) , Cree -^ak, Fox -yog*; aJc before
i becomes aa; Cree aakiy land, Montagnais aaai (Fox a'k*); tah[i]t (Fox
k[e]t) becomes at, atuki tht ear, as compared with utuki his eab, tahiiu
thy body, kutaui tht father, ataiamiau thou pratest, as compared
with ntaiamiau i pray; t[u]k becomes ta before e, -tae (sign of the dubi-
tative), Cree -tokd, Fox -tuge; k[e]ah becomes tah, tahiudin thou art
hungry for ke-^-ah^; tc[i]k[i] becomes ta, -aia (subj. mode; third per-
1 Skinner, Notes on the Eastern Cree and Northern Saulteaux, p. 11, New York, 1911.
248 CLA8SIFICATI0K OF ALGONQUIAN TBIBES [■TH.AK2r.28
son pi. an. subj., third person sing. an. object) as compared with
Cree -aiciJc, Fox (participial) -aicig^; sJc[%]/c[i] becomes ss, -m (subj.
mode, third pi. an. subj., second person sing, object), Cree shikf Fox
-*H^ (part.). Further, it may be noted that final -t(7^, w* after coi^
sonants, has a history in Montagnais different from that in Cree.
Observe Montagnais ni — hu he — me (independent mode), Cree ne — h.
Fox ne — gu/^, tshi — hi he — thee (independent mode), Cree Jee — Jc^
Fox ke — ffuxiy •4hu (first person pi. incl. of subjunctive), Cree -yuX:,
Fox -yAgw^. These phonetic changes are of extremely wide appli-
cation. It is unnecessary to give tables showing the verbal terminal
tions as they agree with those of Cree. It may be noted that -u
corresponds to Cree -it and -au to Cree -ow, except in the first person
^1. incl., where we find -u. The reason for the latter is not clear.
After emphasizing the essential unity of Cree and Montagnais it
may be well to point out some individual traits of the latter. In the
first place though there is a pan (Cree pun) preterite, it is confined to
the indicative and does not occur in the subjunctive. Another point
is that the '' suppositif " of the mode ''subjonctif" is clearly allied
to the Fox potential subjunctive for which there is no correspondent in
Cree (compare Mont. -^aJeyJcue we (eKcL),'iJeuaJcuewR (incl.),-ieitueibu€
YE with Fox -yAgage^^j -^AQAgu^, -yagdgu'^, respectively). The other
intransitive persons in Montagnais have the characteristic hi but
have no correspondents in Fox. The transitive forms do not corre-
spond closely, though there are resemblances between the two lan-
guages; hence tables are not given. In closing, it may be added that
the Montagnais an — me, etc., has the appearance of a passive in
structure, but there are several points which are not clear. (The
above examples of Montagnais and Cree are taken, respectively, from
Lemoine and Horden, with the exception of Cree ashy, which is from
Lacombe. It will be seen by consulting the tables of Fort Totten
Cree that the terminal Tc of Horden is doubtless the strong (impure)
sonant g of the former. Fox, Sauk, Kickapoo, Ottawa, etc. A couple
of examples of Sapir's Montagnais, U'inipaha'wAta thou shxest
THEM an. (Fox JcenepaJiOAVAg^) , ts'lnipaJii'wAts he killed them an.
(Fox kudnepaAawAg^) , ichoe'wAts women (Fox VhwdwAg^, illustrate
the principles mentioned above. The writer suspects that Skinner's
fci a (Rupert's House Cree) thou is really ts'^fa. The initial is' at
once classes the word as Montagnais. It is true that according to
Lemoine the ordinary Montagnais correspondent has Z, not y) but it
should be noticed that in Oee dialectically hya occurs (see Horden,
Cree Grammar, p. 3, London, 1881; Lacombe, Dictionnaire de la
Langue des Cris, p. xv, Montreal, 1874). The Rupert's House Cree
then would correspond to this.)
In discussing the relations of other Eastern-Central Algonquian
languages, it is understood that Montagnais agrees with Cree unless
MICHSL80N] ALOOKQUIAN LINQUISTIG GB0UP8 249
the contrary is expressly mentioned. Hence the fact that Montag-
nais sometimes is not mentioned merely means that it agrees with
Cree.
Menominee
Menominee is characterized by peculiar consonantic clusters due
to' the elimination of the final i of initial stems; thus, wdpmd'wAg
THEY BEGAN TO CRY (FoX Wdpi-), WdpketCpipA'xtaw^ HE BEGAN TO
RUN SWIFTLY (Fox wdpi-f t^Vd-), Ttikesn&wd'wAg i have seen them
(Fox neJcxcindwdwAg*) , Jcdtcmd'wAg they are crying hard (Fox
Jce*tcimaiydWAg*), Jcespiv>^ he has come (Fox hlcipydw^)j Jcikesme-
JcdnegundwAg they fought us (Fox JceJcicim%gdt'iJie gundnAff^), This
elimination may cause a double consonant, as plplmmekdtdWAg they
FOUGHT AS THEY WENT ALONG (Fox pewi + pydmlgdtlWAg^) y pipCmm-
esew^ HE WENT PAST EASING HIMSELF (Fox pemi + pydmtsiw^),
tvdpplpA'xtaw^ HE BEGAN TO RUN (Fox wdpi -h pydr) . The combi-
nation of the subordinating particle as with initial stems abo
gives rise to clusters — for example, AspemdtiseyA we shall live.
The only true consonantic clusters that occur within the same mor-
phologic division of a word are sic and sp; the latter alone is impor-
tant in determining the general relations of Menominee. Exeunples
are: Jcespin perhaps, Cree Jetspin, Ojibwa hisirpin; icpdmiyA above,
Cree tshpimifc, Ojibwa ishpiminjf, Fox apemigi (see discussion of
Ojibwa, p. 261). The combination xt agrees with Micmac, e. g. pi-
pAxtav/^ HE is coming on the run, Micmac p6xtArnJcdsid he went
ON. Surd and -sonant are exceedingly difficult to distinguish; like-
wise e and S. The writer was unable to determine these with abso-
lute accuracy; the sounds are given as taken down^ Whispered
vowels are easy to hear after w; in other cases it is questionable
whether they actually exist. A pecuUarity of Menominee is that
Central Algonquian s under unknown conditions becomes n; thus
no'nee!' my father (Fox nose), na'ne' my elder brother (Fox nesese) ,
panindw^ he stopped in his flight (Fox ponisdv/^, -ondr walk (Fox
"USdr),
A table of the independent mode follows.
250
CLASSIFICATION OF ALGONQUIAN TBIBES [aTH.ANN.28
9
I
?
Jl
I
^
I
e
i
•A
f
It's 3
M M M
111.^
s s
•«• •«• •«•
S .M ••<
Mill
11
K R «
M M IS
I I
II
IS is il tl e
1
llUl
M ji It tH 9t
a ^
• •
It will be seen that Menominee has
many f onns quite peculiar to itself, and
that the agreements with Cree-Montag-
nais are far more numerous than with
any other languages of the Central sub-
division; those with Fox are next in
order of number. For the agreements
with Delaware, see the section on that
language. Details follow :
I — ^Tou no correspondent; nearest N.
I — ^HiM agreement with C, F., D.
I — THEM an. agreement with C, F.,
D. (N.?).
I — ^rr agreement with C, A., Oj., Ot.
I — THEM inan. agreement with C.
WE (excl.) intrans. no correspondent;
nearest P., Oj., A., Ot., N.
WE (excl.) — THEE no correspondent;
nearest P., N.
WE (excl.) — ^You no correspondent;
nearest N., A., Ot. (PJ).
WE (excl.) — him' no correspondent;
structure as we (incl.) — him.
WE (excl.) — THEM an. no correspond-
ent; cf. WE (incl.) — THEM an.
WE (excl.) — ^rr no correspondent.
WE (excl.) — THEM inan. no corre-
spondent.
WE (incl.) intrans. no correspondent;
nearest P., Oj.; cf. also C.
WE (incl.) — ^him; cf. C*
WE (incl.) — THEM an.; cf. C*
WE (incl.) — ^rr no correspondent.
WE (incl.) — THEM inan. no corre-
spondent.
THOU — us (excl.) no correspondent.
THOU — ^HiM agreement with C, F., D.
THOU — ^THEM an. agreement with C,
F.,D.
THOU — IT agreement with C, A., Ot.,
Oj.
THOU — ^THEM iuau. agreement with C.
1 Lacombe gives a Cree variant which Is the exact oom-
Bpondent.
mcHBLSON] ALGONQUIAN LINGUISTIC GBOUPS 251
Y£, intrans. no correspondent; nearest P., N.; cf. also Oj., Ot., A.;
for last syllable cf. C.
T£ — ^M£ no correspondent; nearest N.; cf. also A.; Oj., Ot.
YE — us (excl. ) no correspondent.
YE — ^HiM agreement with C, D.
YE — THEM an. agreement with C, D.
YE — IT no correspondent.
YE — THEM inan. no correspondent.
HE — us (excl.) no correspondent; for the structure cf. he — ^us
(incl.)
HE — ^us (incl.) agreement with C.
HE — ^You agreement with C, F.
HE — HIM agreement with C, F. (N. ?).
HE — THEM an. agreement with C, F. (N. ?).
HE — IT agreement vdth C, F., P., N., Oj. (one form).
THEY an. — us (excl.) no correspondent; cf. they an. — us (incl.).
THEY an. — us (incl.) agreement with C.
THEY an. — YOU agreement with C, F., D.
THEY an. — ^HiM agreement with C, F.
THEY an. — THEM an. agreement with C, F.
THEY an. — ^rr agreement with C, F., P.
THEY an. — THEM inan. agreement with C, F., P.
Where all agree with or without phonetic changes, no record has
been made. In certain cases ft is impossible to be sure whether
phonetic changes have not disguised agreements.
THEY inan., intrans., looks strange as contrasted with the common
Central Algonquian form (on the Cree correspondent, see p. 244) ; how-
ever, it is merely because the word from which it is taken chances
to have a vowel before the termination, and not a consonant. The
same is to be observed in Kickapoo, and doubtless other dialects;
thusKickapoo tetepydAn*, i. e., tetepydWAn* (see p. 258) they inan. are
BOUND (analysis: fe^pi circle, initial stem; -d- secondary connective
stem, inan. copula; -wati* termination of the tliird person inan. pi.
intrans. independent mode after a vowel as contrasted with -ani
after a consonant). [Note -^iwAn* in Fox as compared with -an^f the
ordinary termination of the third person pi. inan. intrans. independ-
ent mode; see Handbook of American Indian Languages {BuU. 4O,
B. A. E.), pt. 1, p. 833.]
It should be specially noted that Menominee, Oee, and Fox
agree in having the objective forms of it and them inan. expressed
by a single form as opposed to Ottawa, Algonkin, Ojibwa, and
Shawnee. It is a common Algonquian feature that in subordinate
modes the forms are expressed by single pronouns.
A table for the subjimctive mode is not available; however, the
writer can give some information concerning the relations indicated
252 CLASSIFICATION OF ALGOKQUIAN TRIBES [eth. ann. 28
by it. Many of the fonns seem peculiar to Menominee and are
difficult to analyze, i — ^you agrees with C, Oj., A., Ot., in structure
and presumably also with Peoria, he — us (excl.) has no correspond-
ent (the form is -^yAtne), but distinctly approaches the correspond-
ents of C, F., S., A., and presumably P. The forms of the third
person plural animate both as subject and object closely resemble
the correspondents in Oj., A., the East Main Cree of Horden, certain
variants given by Lacombe in his Orammaire de la Langue des Oris
(Montreal, 1874), and to a lesser extent the correspondents in Ottawa.
The corresponding forms of Horden's future of the subjunctive, and
Lacombe's ''suppositif " of the ''subjonctif,'' as well as the supposed
present subjunctive of ^ort Totten Cree also closely resemble them.
It goes without saying that the Menominee forms lack the nasal of
the Ojibwa, Algonkin, and Ottawa. On the other hand the various
forms of Cree possess an extra syllable with w.
To sum up, we may say that although Menominee must be classed
by itself, yet it is perfectly clear that it belongs intimately with
Cree-Montagnais, etc., on the one hand, and Mrith Sauk, Fox, and
Ejckapoo on the other.
Sauk, and Closb Linguistic Cognates
The differences between Sauk, Fox, and Kickapoo consist of a
trifling modification of pronunciation, vocabulary, and idiom. Shaw-
nee is slightly removed from them. To facilitate the discussion of
the relations of the last-named language to them as well as the rela-
tions of the entire group, tables for the independent, conjunctive,
and subjunctive modes in Fox, and for the same modes in Shawnee,
are given.
HICBVL80N]
ALGONQUIAN UKGUISTIC GBOUPS
253
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it
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254
CLASSIFICATION OF ALGONQUIAN TRIBES [bth. ann.28
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MICHBLSON]
ALGOKQUIAN LINGUISTIC GROUPS
255
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256 CLASSIFICATION OF ALGONQUIAN TRIBES [eth. ann. 28
SHAWNEE
The forms ^ i — him, them an., them inan.; thou — him, them an.,
THEM inan.; ye — ^him, them an., rr, them inan.; he — ^rou (pL),
HIM, THEM inan.; they an.— you (pi.), him, rr, them inan. agree
with Ojibwa, etc., in structure. For the probable noteworthy agree-
ments with Peoria, see the discussion of that language. It is quite
clear that one of the Delaware dialects agrees in the formation of he —
us (excl. and incL), they an. — ^us (excl. and incl.), even if there is
but the form he — ^us (excl.) in the table to support the assertion.
Passamaquoddy agrees in the forms for i — ^you (pi.) him, them an. ;
THOU — ^HiM, THEM an.; YE intrans.; ye — ^BfE, him; he — ^us (excl.
and incl.); he — ^you (pi.), him; they an. — ^him. It is probable
that the forms for he — them an. and they an. — them an. are
shared by Passamaquoddy (and Algonkin) but the phonetics are not
certain. The forms correspond nearly to the Fox possessive pronouns
for HIS (an. pi.) and theib (an. pi.). It is unfortunate that the
inanimate forms of Passamaquoddy are not available, as they might
show further agreements with Shawnee. However, it may be noted
that I, THOU, YE — THEM (inan.), ye — ^rr agree also with Cree.
Natick curiously shows apparent agreement in he — ^us (incl.), and so
presumably would he — us (excl.). However, they an. — ^us (excl.)
shows a different formation, and hence presumably they an. — ^us
(incl.) would also. The agreement with Delaware in the form for
HE — ^HiM may be noted in addition to the one already mentioned.
(For another one, see the discussion of Ddaware, p. 277.)
The forms with the termination -pe, though unique, are certainly
to be associated with the Fox -perui even if the two do not entirely
coincide. Those with the termination -puxi make it certain that Shaw-
nee is related very intimately to Fox, etc., for no other Central Algon-
quian languages have the termination, though it is found (modified
phonetically) in Eastern Algonquian, and an allied form occurs in
Piegan. The forms for i, thou — rr point also in this direction.
The terminations of the two subordinate modes given agree with
Fox, Cree, and Micmac in lacking the nasal of Ojibwa and Peoria,
and Delaware, and the terminations are to be associated ^th those of
Fox. The w of the forms for he, they (an.) — ^you is unique at present,
otherwise the forms are normal. The forms he, they an. — ^us (excl.)
are to be associated distinctly with the Fox correspondents, though
the syllable -ge- suggests the Ojibwa correspondents. The first
person singular intransitive agrees with Delaware and Micmac. i —
THEE at present is unique, but if complete schedules were available
for the various Delaware dialects and for the eastern subdivision of
the Eastern-Central branch, correspondents would doubtlessly be
found. I— rr, them inan. agrees with Delaware.
1 In giving these statistics no account is taken of sudi fonns as are common Centrai Algonquian.
mcOTLSONl ALGONQUIAN LINGUISTIC GROUPS 257
Phonetically Shawnee differs somewhat from Fox. The sibilant
is retained in the cluster ap, which appears as *p in Fox though
retained in Ojibwa G>ut not in Peoria) : apemegi on high, Fox a^pemegi
(see the discussion of Cree and Ojibwa, pp. 238, 261). The combina-
tion -^uo^ is lost after i and a, as in Ojibwa: Shawnee hUeni man,
Fox ineniv/*; Shawnee hugirm chief, Fox ugimaw^. * It may be noted
that -t£7^ is lost after e under unknown conditions when corresponding
to Fox : pemBe (Fox pemusd'W^) he walked on, pi&u^ (Fox dpydvf)
HE CAME. The combination -wa- is lost medially under unknown con*
ditions : pylgi they went* (Fox pydwAgi) as contrasted with hivxiki
(Oatschet, confusion of surd and sonant; Fox MwAgi) they said. The
sound 8 of Fox is replaced by the interdental surd spirant and the pre-
ceding vowel is ordinarily syncopated: ndda my father (Fox no^a),
JcokomOena our (incl.) QRAND.iOTHSR (Fox Jco^komesendna) , ^deOa
MY ELDER BROTHER (Fox neseso). Corresponding to Fox, Ojibwa,
Menominee, etc., n, Shawnee has I and n under unknown conditions,
agreeing, however, with Peoria, Delaware, and (partially) Eastern
Algonquian in this use.
To sum up, we may say that while Shawnee has Certain features
of its own, it stands nearest to Fox, and next to Eastern Algonquian;
in fact it stands nearly halfway between the two. It will be seen
that Ojibwa shares but these persons of the independent mode,
namely, ye — them an., they an. — you (pi.), which are not shared
by Passamaquoddy. (No account is taken of the agreements
in the inanimate objective forms, as we have no correspondents
available in Passamaquoddy by which to test them.) On the other
hand, Passamaquoddy shares the following forms with Shawnee
which are not shared by Ojibwa: i — ^you (pi.), ye intrans., ye — ^me;
they an. — ^him. The forms for he — ^us (excl. and incl.) presumably
are phonetic correspondents; those for he — them an. and they
an. — THEM an. probably are equivalents. The Passamaquoddy
forms for we (excl. and incl., intrans.), we (excl.) — thee, you;
THOU — ^us (excl.); ye — ^us (excl.), coinciding phonetically with the
respective Fox forms, are closely similar to the corresponding Shawnee
forms. Accordingly^ it may be that many of the apparent points of
contact with Ojibwa are due merely to the latter having certain points
in common with Eastern Algonquian and Cree (this last has reference
particularly to the inanimate objective forms above noted). The
fact that Ojibwa in the independent mode shares only the ter-
minations for HE — ^us (excl. and incl.), and they an. — ^us (excl.
and incl.), with Fox as opposed to Passamaquoddy, while the latter
shares numerous terminations with Fox as opposed to Ojibwa, and at
^ It is possible that the last change may aooount for the diflorenoes in certain persons of the Independent
mode in Fox on the one hand and in Ojibwa and Shawnee on the other; bat It is also possible to consider
the terminations as differing in morphologic structure. The same point ooouia In certain other <
20903''— 28 BTH— 12 17
258 CLASSIFICATION OF ALGONQUIAN TRIBES [irrH.ANN.28
the same time a goodly niunber of terminations with Ojibwa as opposed
to Fox — certainly points in the same direction. For Cree (Fort Totten)
likewise shares the terminations for he — us (excl. and incl.) and they
an. — us (excl. and incl.) with Ojibwa and Fox. Now Ojibwa shares
in the independent mode no terminations with Fox as opposed to Cree,
while the latter shares a number with Fox as opposed to Ojibwa
(see below), at the same time having some points in common with
Ojibwa as opposed to Fox (see the discussions of Cree and Ojibwa,
pp. 247, 267, 268). Therefore the fact that Ojibwa shares with both
Cree and Fox the terminations mentioned may be pure chance. Now
if Ojibwa and Fox are only remotely connected, it is improbable on
the face of it that Shawnee, which is most intimately related to Fox,
should be closely connected with Ojibwa also. Consequently, there
remain but few points of contact between Ojibwa and Shawnee
that are certain.
8AUK, FOX, AND KICKAPOO
We have seen above that Sauk, Fox, and Kickapoo * differ from
one another by very trifling modifications of pronunciation, vocabu-
laries, and idioms, and that Shawnee is intimately related to them.
The close connection of the Eastern Algonquian dialects is to be
noted. It may be well to show that the Shawnee forms for thet an.
— us (excl. and incl.), you (pi.) are much closer to the Fox forms than
the corresponding forms of Passamaquoddy are to the latter, even
if the Shawnee forms are not absolutely identical with the Fox corre-
spondents. On the other hand, Passamaquoddy shares absolutely
with Fox the terminations in -pena which Shawnee only approxi-
mates. Yet Passamaquoddy shares the ban preterite of Ojibwa (see
1 The flnt two are somewhat more doeely related than either Is to the third. In the discussions of the
interrelations of Algonquian languages it is to be understood that Sauk and Kickapoo agree with Fox,
though this is rarely mentioned. ,
Characteristlcof Sauk is the useof the singular for the plural abo in the obvlative (objective) case, and in pos-
sessive pronouns of the third person (singular and plural). Thus Sauk utAiumdhAn* pydnttTiin' means either
BIS Doo IS COMINO OT HIS Doos ARE COMING. The Fox expressious for these are, respectively, uUnemSKe'
mAni ppdniwAni, uUnemShema't p|rdni«Mi'< (by chance in the phrase Sauk f$UnemOhAni lacks the m suffix
which Fox has; but even in Sauk the writer has heard the word with the tn suffix, though (purely by acci-
dent) not in this particular phrase) . Note,too,Sauk i'kioAwa neskinaw&wa nefUwAni cemameg* dne'lA mOgvUi
wHmekAni, which means either the woman hated the man because her younger brother had been
SLAIN BT HIM , or THE WOMAN HATED THE MAN BECAUSE HER YOUNGER BROTHERS HAD BEEN SLAIN BY HIM , Or
THE WOMAN HATED THE MEN BECAUSE HER YOUNGER BROTHER HAD BEEN SLAIN BY THEM, Or THE WOMAN
HATED THE MEN BECAUSE HER YOUNGER BROTHERS HAD BEEN SLAIN BY THEM. In FoX SUCh ambiguity
Is impossible. See sections 34, 45 of the Algonquian sketch in the Handbook of American Indian Lan-
guages {BulUtin 40, part 1, of the Bureau of American Fthnologp). Her younger brother and her
YOUNGER BROTHERS are distinguished by the respective terminations -Ani and -a'*; the obviatives man
and MEN would be kept apart by the identical respective suffixes; but the subordinate verb would never-
theless have the ending -td.
Kickapoo agrees with Fox against Sauk in these respects, and so must be counted as nearer the former
than the latter. Nevertheless in phonetics Kickapoo is further apart from them than either is from the
other. In Kickapoo a special feature is a weak w which is either heard as full sounding, as A, or not at all.
Doctor Jones's and the writer's texts exhibit these variations, and strangely enough agree in such varia-
tions for the greater part. An example is ugitndica, uffirrtOha, u^mda chief (selected from Doctor Jones's
texts; Sauk and Fox ugimOwa). In their native syUabary Kickapoo exhibit the variation of recording
and not recording the w.
MiCHELSON] ALGONQUIAN LINGUISTIC GROUPS 259
the discussion of that language, p. 269), and this feature forces us to
rank it as more distant from Fox than is Shawnee. The consonantic
clusters of Passamaquoddy, even if for the greater part these are
secondary and due to the phonetic elimination of vowels (see the
discussion of Eastern subtype, p. 283), also point in this direction.
The fact that Piegan in certain persons of the independent mode
shows distinct affinities to Fox has been briefly mentioned above
and is treated more fully in the discussion of Piegan (p. 231).
We have seen that Ojibwa is connected only remotely with Fox,
but it may be noted that the Ojibwa subjunctive mode of the dubi-
tative conjugation corresponds to the Fox interrogative subjunctive;
but to what an extent the transitive forms agree is questionable, as
these are not given by Doctor Jones.
Peoria undoubtedly belongs with the Ojibwa group of Central
Algonquian languages; still there are some points of contact with
Fox. It should be noted that the sibilant is not retained before p
as in Ojibwa, e. g. Ojibwa ishpiming, Shawnee spemegif Fox d'pemegi,
Peoria pdmingi above, in the sky. The fact that Peoria is in cer-
tain respects phonetically more archaic than Ojibwa makes certain
terminations of the indicative seem to resemble Fox rather than
Ojibwa (see the section on Ojibwa, etc., pp. 267, 271) ; but there is one
termination, namely, that for they an. — rr, them inan., in which the
question of phonetics does not arise and which agrees entirely with
Fox as opposed to Ojibwa.
The relation of Natick to Fox is not particularly close. In the
discussion of the former language it is pointed out that most of
the present suppositive mode corresponds to the* Fox present sub-
junctive and that certain persons of the ''prseter" suppositive mode
correspond to the Fox potential subjunctive.
From the statistics given in the discussion of Menominee it will be seen
that there are no certain agreements with Fox (Sauk, Kickapoo) that
are not shared also by Cree and Montagnais, while Menominee shares
quite a few terminations with Cree and Montagnais which are not shared
by Fox. The forms that are pecuUar to these four languages, with the
possible exception of Natick in the first two — the orthography is not
clear — are he — him, them an., they an. — him, them. The agree-
ment of Delaware (one form) with these four dialects in the forms
for I — HIM, them an., thou — him, them an. is noteworthy. The
fact that the inanimate plural in the objective forms of the inde-
pendent mode in Oee-Montagnais, Menominee, Sauk, Fox, Kickapoo
is expressed by the same forms as the inanimate singular as opposed
to Ojibwa, Algonkin, Ottawa, Potawatomi, and Shawnee, is remark-
able. Peoria presumably agrees with the first group.
The agreement of Ojibwa, Fox, Cree, and Montagnais in the form
for THEY an. — us (incl.) of the independent mode may be noted, as also
260 CLASSIFICATION OF ALGONQUIAN TBIBES [bth. ank. 28
the agreement of Fox, Ojibwa, Cree, Montagnais, and Delaware (one
form) in the termination for he — ^us (excL). (Note that Fort Totten
Cree agrees with Fox and Ojibwa in the forms for he, they an. — ^us
(excl. and incl.)0
Fox, Shawnee, Cree, Montagnais, and Natick lack the na^al in the
present subjunctive which Ojibwa, Peoria, and Delaware have. It
will be seen that Cree agrees with Fox, as opposed to Ojibwa, in the
forms WE (excl.) — thee, you; he — us (excl.). Note that Algonkin
agrees with Fox and Cree in the first two instances and approaches
them in the last. Presumably Ottawa agrees with Algonkin in the
last form as it does in the first two. Few transitive forms of the
Peoria present subjunctive are available, but it is certain that Peoria
is in substantial concord with Algonkin and Ottawa. The Cree
forms with the third person plural as subject or object correspond to
the similar Fox participial forms. In some of these forms therefore
Ojibwa seems close to Fox, but most of them are entirely different in
structure from both Cree and Fox. Cree and Ojibwa agree in the
form for i — ^you (pi.) as opposed to Fox. The remarks made concern-
ing Oee apply with certain limitations to Montagnais. (For these, see
the discussion of that language, p. 248.) It is a matter of great regret
that so few Peoria subjunctive forms are to be found among Doctor
Gatschet's papers; for the Peoria conjunctive agrees in the forms for
the third person plural animate as both subject and object (with the
apparent exception of the forms we (incl.) — ^them an. and they an. —
IT, THEM inan.) with the Fox participial rather than with the Fox
conjunctive, resembling Cree in the case of the present subjunctive.
Now, as may be seen by reference to the Algonquian sketch in the
Handbook of American Indian Languages, the terminations for the
conjunctive, subjunctive, and participial are closely allied; hence it
is very probable that the Peoria subjunctive is in similar agreement.
(See, however, p. 271.) It is remarkable that Micmac in the con-
junctive, though lacking the nasal, agrees with Peoria in that many
forms in which the third person animate plural is either subject or
object coincide with the Fox participial rather than with the sub-
junctive; but the forms for ye — ^them, he — ^them, they — 'jou cor-
respond to the Fox conjunctive, not participial. The forms for
HE — him; they an. — him, them an. differ in structure. (See the dis-
cussion of the Eastern subtype of Eastern- Central major division of
Algonquian languages, p. 287.)
In the discussion of Montagnais it has been pointed out that the
"suppositif of the ''mode subjonctif " is allied with the Fox poten-
tial subjunctive. It is repeated here to emphasize the northern
afi^ties of Fox.
The relations of Fox to Delaware may be briefly dismissed. That
Delaware shares in the independent mode the forms for i — him,
1
MiCHSLBON] AL60NQUIAK UKOUISTIC GROUPS 261
THEM, and THOU — ^him, them an. witt Fox, Menominee, Montag-
nais, and Cree has been already pointed out as well as the agreement
(one form) with Fox, Ojibwa, Cree, and Montagnais in the termina-
tion for HE — us (excL). The concord of Delaware, Fox, Cree, and
Montagnais in the ending for they an. — us is of importance in that it
shows the northern relationships of Delaware, but a striking simi-
larity is to be found in the fact that Delaware has a correspondent,
though altered considerably phonetically, to Fox -pena. As noted
above, this termination is found alone in Fox but has correspond-
ents in Eastern Algonquian and Piegan, and Shawnee approximates
it. The forms which have the equivalent of -pena in Delaware are:
WB (excL, and incl. I), intransitive; we (excl.) — thee, you (pl.)i
him; thou — us (excl.) ; ye — us (excl.). In all these, however, Dela-
ware has another form as well. The forms for we (incl.) are not
given by Zeisberger, but it is reasonable to believe that they would
be the same as the inclusive forms, that is where they would oc6ur,
with the substitution of Ar' for n\ It may be added that Delaware
has a correspondent to the Fox conjunctive mode. (For other
points, see the discussion of Delaware, p. 277.)
Ojibwa and Clobe Linguistic Ooonatbs
The following compose this group: Ojibwa, Ottawa, Potawatomi,
Algonkin, and (somewhat removed from them) Peoria, etc. A feature of
the group is the accretion of a nasal. Delaware agrees with the group
in this respect and this is to be considered a special point of contact with
the Ojibwa group. Examples are: Fox vtei whence, Ojibwa, Peoria
ondjif Ottawa undji (Oatschet), Delaware urUscJii; Fox dneta some,
Cree atit (for the phonetics, see the discussion of Cree, p. 239), Ojibwa
anind, Peoria alenda, Delaware dlinde; Fox Atidgw^ stab, Cree ataJc,
Shawnee alagwa, Peoria (Uangwa, Ojibwa and Algonkin <mang, Dela-
ware alUingue, Other examples can be readily found by consulting
the tables of verbal terminations. The formation of the negative
verb by means of a suflSx asi (or sUghtly varying forms) apparently
is found in no other Algonquian languages. Examples are: Ojibwa
Jedwin Tdwdhamigossi he does not see thee, hiwdhamigoasig they
DO NOT SEE thee ; Peoria wapamiasoko do not look at me, Jdkalvnr
dansiwa she did not know (Fox Jce'Jc + ane+ita-), Ottawa JcawimsJie
Jdkikdnedissiwak (Gatschet) they are not yet acquainted with
EACH OTHER (Fox Jd + Jce'Jc+dne + tl+WAg* they had known each
other), a sibilant is retained before p (as in Menominee and Shaw-
nee) in Ojibwa, Ottawa, and Algonkin, though not in Peoria (the
writer can give no information about Potawatomi on this point) : Cree
kicpin (Mspin) if, Ojibwa kishpin, Ottawa Jclcpin; Algonkin Jdcpin;
Cree ishpimiJc above, Ojibwa ishpiming, Peoria pdmingi, Shawnee
262 CLASSIFICATION OF ALGONQUIAN TRIBES fBTH. ann. 28
spemegi, Fpx a^pemegi (cf. Menominee icpdmiyA over and above).
It is pointed out in the section on Sauk, etc., that Shawnee shares
the loss of -wa with Ojibwa after i and a, e. g., Fox inenivxi, Menom-
inee indnivxij Cree (Moose) Udiw, Shawnee JiUenij Ojibwa ineni,
Ottawa nine, Potawatomi nene (Peoria Idnini; see below); Fox
ugimdw^, Menominee oJcemdw^, Cree okimaw, Shawnee hugimdy
Ojibwa oginuif Algonkin oTcima, Ottawa HgiTna (Gatschet), Peoria
Tcimd,. Final wa is lost after e{d) in Ojibwa, Algonkin, Ottawa, and
Potawatomi: Fox i'Jcwdw^ woman (Shawnee *'hivdw^)f Cree ishwe'u,
Ojibwa VTcwd, Algonkin ikwe, Ottawa 'hue (Gatschet), Potawatomi
lewd (Gatschet).
OJIBWA, POTAWATOMI, OTTAWA, AND ALGONKIN
According to Dr. William Jones, Ojibwa, Ottawa, and Potawatomi
are very closely related. This opinion is confirmed by Doctor
Gatschet^s notes and by personal information. Doctor Jones makes
the observation that Potawatomi has a tendency to slur over sylla^
bles; this also can be confirmed from Doctor Gatschet's notes and the
writer's personal information (e. g., nenwAg men, Ojibwa neniwAg).
Following is the table for the Ojibwa independent and subjunctive
modes, taken from Bishop Baraga's Grammar of the Otchipwe Lan-
guage (second edition, Montreal, 1878). The second n of nin in the
independent mode is the accretion spoken of above. Under certain
conditions it is omitted. Presumably Algonkin agrees in the usage.
(It may be noted that apparently the dialect of the Mississippi band
of Ojibwa at White Earth, Minn., does not completely agree with
the usage given by Baraga in his paradigms.)
The very close relationship of Algonkin may be seen from the tables
showing the Algodkin present, independent, and subjunctive modes,
extracted from Lemoine's Dictionnaire Fran^ais^Algonkin (Quebec,
1911).
IflCHBLSON]
ALGONQUIAN LINGUISTIC GROUPS
263
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M M M M
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M M M M
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B B BB ^M^i£
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264
CLASSIFICATION OF ALGONQUIAN TRIBES [bth. ▲nn.28
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MICHBL80N] ALOONQUIAK LINGUISTIC GROUPS 265
The independent mode will be discussed first, we (excl.) — thee,
Tou agrees in structure with the correspondents in Ottawa, Potawa-
tomi, Natick, and Peoria (the writer lacks a form to prove this for
Peoria in the form wb (excl.) — ^you, but the inference is justifiable).
They approximate the Menominee correspondents, we (excl. and
ind.) — ^rr agrees in structure with Ottawa and the Cree of Fort Totten;
WE (excl. and ind.) — them inan. agrees with Ottawa (it will be
remembered that in Oee the third person plural inanimate coincides
with the singular), he — them an., and thet an. — ^them an. agree
with Passamaquoddy in formation.
The subjunctive mode now will be taken up. we (excl.) — ^thee,
YOU agree in formation with Cree, Fox, Shawnee, Natick, Delaware,
and presumably also with Peoria. (The correspondent in Ottawa
for WE (exd.) — ^you is not absolutdy certain: see bdow.) The
Ojibwa correspondents are passives in structure; the same may be
said of the same forms of the Ojibwa independent mode, we (excl.) —
HIM, thou — ^HiM, he intrans., he — ^BfE, he — ^us (exd.), he — ^him,
HE — THEM an., they an. intrans., they an. — ^mb, they an. — ^him,
THEY an. — them an., they an. — rr, them inan. are conjimctives in
structure and agree (with the regular phonetic differences) absolutely
with the corresponding forms in Fox, and with the exception of
HE — us (exd.) and THEY an. — us (exd.) (which differ slightly in struc
ture, though exhibiting the same type of formation) also with those of
Shawnee. Peoria agrees with the Algonkin forms under discussion
ia the terminations for we (exd.) — ^him, thou — ^him, he intrans.,
HE — ^ME, HE — ^HiM, THEY an. intrans., they an. — ^him, they an. — ^rr,
THEM inan. The Algonkin form for they an. — us (exd.), though
agreeing with Ojibwa in the final syllable, nevertheless agrees with
Fox (and partially with Shawnee and Cree) in morphological formsr
tion. It should be noted that the structure of he — us (excl.) and
THEY an.— us (exd.) is fundamentaUy the same in the corresponding
forms of the Fox, Shawnee, Cree (and Peoria?) subjunctive; the
Fox, Shawnee, and Peoria conjunctive; the Fox and Shawnee
participial.
With the exceptions noted above, Algonkia agrees completely with
Ojibwa in the present tense of the independent and subjunctive modes.
The writer's personal experience with Ottawa was confined to a few
hours at Carlisle; hence but a brief description can be given.
SyUables are slurred over as in Potawatomi, though probably not to
so great an extent. Examples are hvabAmim ye see me, hnlnin i give
THEE. Final n is almost inaudible; compare the suppression of final
m, n, I in Nass (Handbook of American Indian Languages, part 1,
p. 288). In some cases the writer has consistently recorded the sound
as a mere aspiration, e. g. in the independent forms for we (excl. and
inch) — HIM, HE — us (exd. and ind.). In the objective forms of
266 CLASSIFICATION OF ALGOKQUIAN TBIBES [bth. ann.28
THEM inan. the writer has consistently recorded the terminal n as
full-sounding, as also in the forms for i — rr, thou — rr, he — him,
HE — ^them an., he — ^rr, they an. — ^him, them an., they an. — rr. In
the remaining cases where final n is to be expected in the independent
mode, excepting the( form for i — thee, the writer has been inconsistent
in the recording and non-recording of the sound in question. The
problem is further complicated by the fact that the informant likewise
spoke Ojibwa, and gave certain forms with the terminal n as Ojibwa
and the correspondents without them (at least to the writer's ear) as
Ottawa. Hence it is possible that confusion of dialect may account for
the apparent inconsistency noted above. It may be mentioned that the
late Doctor Gatschet's notes on Ottawa show forms without terminal
n when etymologically expected; but the writer can not say whether
the former was consistent in his usage. Another point in phonetics
worth noting is that the terminal vowel in the forms i — ^him, thou —
HIM, ye — ^HiM is distinctly aspirated. Surd and sonant when terminal
are extremely hard to distinguish. This applies especially to d and U
The writer is convinced that with the possible exception in the forms
HE — thee, rr, they inan., intransitive, of the subjunctive, Jc does
not occur terminally, and that forms which sound as if containing
this really end in strong (impure) sonant g. Medially surds and
sonants are far easier to keep apart. Corresponding to Ojibwa and
Algonkin terminal ng in the subjunctive the writer consistently heard
a post-palatal 9 without a following stop.
Turning now to the verbal forms of the present independent and
subjunctive which show the general relationship of Ottawa to other
members of the group: In the independent mode the forms for we
(excl. and incl.) — rr, them inan.; we (exd.) — thee, you agree in for-
mation with Algonkin as opposed to Ojibwa. (The form for we (excl.)
— THEE, YOU Jc — ninim is noteworthy for the diflference in phonetics as
compared with the Algonkin correspondent.) In the same mode Ot-
tawa agrees with Ojibwa as opposed to Algonkin in the forms for he —
THEM an., THEY an. — them an. Distinctive of Ottawa (apparently) is
the fact that the form for they an. — ^rr is the same as they an. — them
inan. In the subjunctive it may be noted that the forms for we
(excl.) — HIM, THOU — ^HIM, HE intraUS., he — ^ME, he — ^HIM, he — THEM
an., THEY an. intrans., they an. — me, they an. — ^him, they an. — ^them
an. are subjunctives (cf. Ojibwa) and not conjunctives (cf. Algonkin).
The forms that the writer received for he — ^us (excl.), they an. — us
(excl. and incl.), they an. — thee, they an. — ^you are passives in
formation, probably due to some misunderstanding. The structure
of WE (exd.)— thee (and presumably we (excl.) — ^you) agrees with
Algonkin as opposed to Ojibwa. It should be noted that the form
for they an. — rr, them inan., andwadj apparently is absolutely
unique, but the form evidently is to be associated with rr, them inan.
in objective forms of the independent mode.
MiCOTLBOK] ALGONQUIAN LINGUISTIC GROUPS 267
The writer's personal information on Potawatomi is too slight for
him to make very definite statements concerning its precise relation-
ship with Ojibwa, Ottawa, and Algonkin. As stated above, all are
very intimately related. Potawatomi agrees with Algonkin and
Ottawa in the structure of the form for wb (excl.) — ^thee, you of the
independent mode as opposed to Ojibwa. On the other hand it agrees
with the latter language in the formation of we (excl., and presum-
ably incl.) — rr, them inan., of the same mode as opposed to Ot-
tawa and Algonkin. Potawatomi possesses some marked charac^
teristics of its own in the formation of the independent mode; we
(excl.) — ^HiM (n — dmin) and we (incl.) — him (Jc — dmin) have no corre-
spondents in any Central Algonquian language noted thus far. The
forms resemble strongly the inanimate correspondents, but the instru-
mental m (not t) distinctly proves that they must be animate. The
component elements are the respective intransitive correspondents
combined with the common objective pronoun, third person animate,*
d. The plurals of the forms under discussion must have had a similar
structure, they an. — ^you {Jc — gom) is unquestionably a passive in
formation. Apparently they an. — rr has the same termination as
they an. — them inan.
Owing to phonetic differences, Cree, Menominee, Ojibwa, Algonkin,
Ottawa, Delaware, and Passamaqugddy seem to agree in the forms
for he — ^me, thee as opposed to Sauk, Fox, Kickapoo, Shawnee, and
Peoria, but Penobscot and Montagnais demonstrate that the phonetic
change, though the same in the dialects mentioned, is merely a parallel
development and has no significance in determining the ethnic rela-
tions of the tribes. The umlaut of Passamaquoddy in the forms
demonstrates that the change in that dialect at least was a very recent
one. In the same way Ojibwa -^m is merely the phonetic equivalent
of Fox Amv/^ and Peoria -^mvxi.
The Ojibwa present, of both independent and subjunctive modes
will now be discussed. Bearing in mind the comments made above
on Algonkin, Ottawa, and Potawatomi, this will make clear the
general linguistic relations of the entire group. The special points
of Peoria are considered below. It may be mentioned here that
ordinarily in the statistics of linguistic agreements given throughout
this paper the agreement of Algonkin, Ottawa, and Potawatomi with
Ojibwa is not noted. Where the agreement of Peoria is important,
the fact of the agreement is noted. We will begin with the inde-
pendent mode.
As noted in the discussion of Fox, Ojibwa shares no terminations
with that language which are not shared by Cree except the termina-
tions for HE, THEY an. — us (incl.) which are allied to the forms for
HE, THEY an. — us (excl.) and they inan. intrans. (Fort Totten
Cree agrees with Ojibwa and Fox in they an. — ^us (ind.).) For
268 CLASSIFICATION OF ALOONQUIAK TRIBES [bth.ann.2S
this reason we can definitely state that Ojibwa has few, if any, special
points of contact with Fox. As is pointed out in the discussion of
Shawnee, Ojibwa shares the following forms with that language:
I — HIM, THEM an. ; thou — ^HiM, THEM an. ; ye — HIM, THEM an. ; he —
Tou (pi.), him; they an. — you (pi.), him. It will be observed
that Passamaquoddy likewise shares these forms except that for
YE — THEM an. It should be noted that the Shawnee forms for
I, THOU, YE, HE, THEY an. — T^M iuau.; YE, THEY an. — ^rr certainly
are closely connected with the Ojibwa correspondents. It is unfortu-
nate that the Passamaquoddy equivalents are not available. How-
ever, it should be noted that Cree agrees in general structure with
Shawnee in these forms with the exception of he, they an. — them
inan., they an. — ^rr. On account of the unsatisfactory material at
our disposal, it is best to abstain from a discussion of the relations of
Ojibwa to Delaware regarding the independent mode here and refer
the reader to the section dealing with Delaware. It will be noted
that Ojibwa and Natick show some very marked agreements in the
independent mode, namely, in the terminations for the first (excl.,
and ind. t) and second persons plural as both subject and objects.
Owing to the deficient orthography, it is difficult to establish other
close relations with Natick, but it is dear that in a considerable
number of cases Natick differs .from Ojibwa. With Cree, Ojibwa
shares no forms that are not shared also by other Algonquian
languages outside the Ojibwa group. (Forms sre lacking to prove
this for WE (ind.) — ^him, them an.; but the intoence can be made
with certainty.) The same applies to Menominee. The Menominee
forms for we (excl. and ind.), ye intrans., ye — ^me approximate the
Ojibwa correspondents, but it should be noted that in these cases
Natick likewise resembles them. The same applies to i, we exd. —
YOU. (The form we (incl.) intrans. is lacking, but the analogy of we^
(exd.) intrans. permits us to infer the form.) The agreement of Cree
and Menominee with Ojibwa in the forms of i, thou — rr, and their
approximation in the forms for ye — ^him, them an. should be noted;
as also the approximation of the Cree form for ye — ^rr.
We will now proceed to discuss the subjunctive. The presence of
the nasal as in Algonkin, Ottawa, Potawatomi ( ?), Peoria, and Dela-
ware will be noted. But Ojibwa has little in common with the last
language in this mode outside the presence of the nasal. The ter-
minations of the third person animate, plural, as both subject and
object, for the greater part are in -wa. It should be noted that Peoria
differs most from Ojibwa in the same persons of the conjunctive
and hence presumably (see bdow) in the subjunctive. Algonkin
and Ottawa agree with Ojibwa in this formation. It is a matter of
regret that a table for the Potawatomi present subjunctive is not
available, as it would be of great assistance in determining the pre-
MiCHJBLBON] ALOONQUIAN LINOXnSTIC GB0UP8 269
cise relations of that language to the other members of the division.
A similar formation is found in Menominee and also in Cree (East
Main). See the section on Menominee. Owing to phonetic changes^
Ojibwa and Cree seem to agree often as opposed to Fox, Peoria, and
Shawnee, but this is quite accidental. The terminations for we
(excl.) — THEE, YOU are really passives in formation; Algonkin and
Ottawa represent the original type. The formation of the termi-
nations of HE — us (excl.), THEY an. — us (excl.) is characteristic of
Ojibwa, quite irrespective of the fact that the last ends in -wa. The
forms are certainly allied to the forms for we (excl.) — ^him, them
an. The termination for i — you agrees with Cree and Peoria as
opposed to Fox. Exclusive of the formations mentioned, the agree-
ment between Ojibwa, Cree, and Fox in this mode is remarkable.
There are a few other points to be considered. Ojibwa can form a
preterite in ban. Cree and Delaware have a correspondent and the
formation of past tenses of subordinate modes by means of this
suffix is an important point of contact between these languages. It
is remarkable that Montagnab, though sharing the formation in the
indicative, apparently lacks it in subordinate modes. Penobscot and
Malecite likewise share the formation in the indicative, but the writer
can not say whether they use it in the formation of past tenses of
the subordinate modes. However, here we find a point of con-
tact with Eastern Algonquian. Peoria has a similar fonnation but
with a suffix pa. So far as known to the writer, its use is confined
to the independent mode. Delaware possesses the same formation
and it is also used to build up past tenses of subordinate modes. It
is found also in Natick but seems to be confined to the independent
mode. In Micmac it is attached to the conjunctive mode (which
is used as an indicative) to form a past tense of the indicative;
it is used in the subjunctive also, to judge from I'AbbS Maillard's
Grammaire de la Langue Mikmaque (New York, 1869). On the same
c^uthority it may be added that Micmac apparently has the equivalent
of the Ojibwa ban preterite, but only in the subjunctive, not else-
where. These features make the Micmac forms seem so strange.
To sum up, Ojibwa chief linguistic relations are with Ottawa,
Potawatomi, Algonkin, and (somewhat removed) with Peoria (see
below). It has relations also with Eastern Algonquian and Cree;
it is apparently but distantly related to Fox (also to Sauk and
Kickapoo); it apparently has important points of contact with
Shawnee, but, as stated in the discussion of that language, these, for
the greater part, may be due to the fact that Shawnee has much in com-
mon with Eastern Algonquian. Ojibwa and Delaware, exclusive of
the nasality and the ban preterite (both of which are striking), have
not very much in common, but the trouble may be with our material.
Ojibwa is not closely related to Menominee.
270
CLASSIFIGATIOK OF ALOONQUIAN TBIBES [btb. ann. 28
PEORIA
. It was noted above that Peoria * certainly belongs to the Ojibwa
group, as is shown by the accretion of a nasal and the formation of
the negative verb. However, it possesses some strongly marked
traits of its own. First of all, it has both n and I corresponding to
Ojibwa, Menominee, Fox, etc., n imder unknown conditions, and it
agrees with Shawnee and Delaware in this use and to a certain extent
with Eastern Algonquian. Further, a sibilant is not retained before
p as it is in Ojibwa, e. g., pdmingi, Ojibwa ishpiming, Fox a'pemeg^.
Below appear the tables of the Peoria independent, conjunctive, and
subjunctive modes so far as the writer has been able to construct them
from Doctor Gatschet's notes and texts. The transitive forms of
the independent mode are all taken from texts. Apparently Doctor
Gatschet mistook the conjunctive for the independent. The confusion
of surd and sonant has been left unchanged.
PEORIA INDEPENDENT MODE
I
we exd.
weind.
thou
ye
he
they an.
Intrans. .
ki— mina
fci-
ki—m»a
IM
-ymki
me . .
, ^—
—
—
ni—kwa
n-koki
usexci. .
—
—
—
ki—pfma
QSlllCl. .
—
—
—
—
—
thee . .
ki-Utmina
—
—
H-kwa
you . .
ki—Umva
—
—
him . . <
nd—<i
-a
them an. .
ni^-aki*
it, them inai
1.
■amwa
•am6ki
PEOBIA CONJUNCTIVE MODE
I
we exd.
weind.
thou
ye
h«
they an.
•fani
•ifangi
•fangwi
-yon<
'ftkwi
^<
-w«Ui
roe ...
—
—
—
•ifani
49ikwi
'Ua
-Udki
usexci. . .
—
—
—
-tyangi
'iangi
'taminda
-fominciU
us incl. . .
—
—
■iangwa
4angwiki
thee . . .
-ton<
•iangi
—
—
—
-atciki
-'kiki
you . . .
-iokoki
-lanffi
—
—
—
-lakwa
-iakwiki
him . . .
-aki
-ckinei
-angwi
-adji
-tkwi
-<Ua
-atciki
them an. .
-akiki
■akindki
-angwi
•iidjiki
-ekwiikit)
-aieiki
-ateiki
It ... .
-afHani
angi
amowatei
PEORIA SUBJUNCTIVE MODE
I
we exd.
weind.
thou
ye
he
they an.
Intrans. . .
-yatid
-yan^
-yangwd
-yofid
■yikrca
46
-watA
him . . .
-akd
•cngwH
-Ota
•SkwA
-aid
-atraffl
1 The writer has not sufficient matolal to warrant dealing with the question of the exact relation of
Peoria to Miami, etc., beyond stating that they all seem intimately related,
s Miami.
MiCHBLSOWl ALGONQUIAN LINGUISTIC GB0UP8 271
Owing to the fact that Peoria phonetically is more archaic than
Ojibwa in some respects, some of the forms of the independent mode
seem to resemble more closely Fox than Ojibwa (the dame applies to
the conjunctive mode). But passing these over, Peoria has at least
these formations which have no correspondents in Ojibwa: i — ^you
(pL); WE (excl.) — thee; they an. — rr, them inan. The first two
agree with Algonkin^ Ottawa, Potawatomi, and Natick, the last
with Fox, Cree, and Menominee. It is a matter of regret that
Doctor Gatschet made no systematic collection of indicative forms,
as some of them might prove to be important in establishing the
relations of Peoria. However, from the meager terminations that
the writer has been able to collect, it is possible to infer with cer-
tainty the forms for i — thee, thou — him, thou — them an., ye — ^me,
YE — ^HIM, ye — THEM an., HE — ^YOU, THEY an. — THEE, THEY an. — ^YOU;
and these confirm us in maintaining that Peoria belongs with Ojibwa,
Ottawa, Algonkin, and Potawatomi. The form for he — ^us (excl.) is
extremely interesting: unless there is a phenomenon similar to that
in Ottawa, and unfortunately we have not sufficient material to deter-
mine this, we have a point of contact with Shawnee (which geo-
graphically would not be surprising) . If the form in question is really
identical with the Shawnee form, then we can infer with absolute
surety that the forms for he — ^us (incL), they an. — us (excl. and
incl.) agree with their Shawnee correspondents.
The Peoria conjunctive and subjunctive are discussed in the sec-
tions dealing with Cree and Sauk. The terminations of the con-
junctive, in which the third person plural animate is subject or object,
correspond to the Fox, Shawnee, and Ojibwa participial mode. Now,
as in Algonquian the terminations of the conjunctive, participial, and
subjunctive are very closely allied, we may infer that the Peoria sub-
junctive in these persons agreed with the conjunctive. It will be
observed that, with the apparent exception of the terminations for
HE— them an. and we (incl.) — them an., these forms would agree
(as do those of the conjunctive) with the Cree subjunctive. (Inreading
Doctor Gatschet's texts the writer has met with -atci and -awcUci, the
terminations for HE — him, them an., they an. — ^him, them an., respec-
tively. These are true conjunctive forms. The question hence arises
to what an extent his notes giving the forms in the table shoidd be
accepted. The true conjunctive forms agree with the Fox and Shaw-
nee correspondents of the same mode, and with the Algonkin corre-
spondents of the subjunctive mode.) Even substituting the Ojibwa
participial for the subjunctive in these persons, they an. — U8(excl.)
represent a different structure from that of the Ojibwa correspondent;
note also the same difference exists in the form for he — us (excl.) (see
the discussion of Algonkin and Menominee, pp. 252, 265) . they an. —
IT, THEM inan. is a true conjunctive and agrees exactly with the Fox
and Shawnee form of the same mode, and the corresponding Algon-
272
CLA8SIFIGATI0N OF ALGONQUIAK XBIBES [eth. ann. 28
kin form in the subjunctive mode. It should be noticed that Mio-
mac partially shares the feature of the Peoria conjunctive. In the
other forms of the conjunctive Peoria agrees with Fox (Shawnee
nearly), Algonkin, Cree, and Micmac (treating conjunctive and sub-
junctive as interchangeable) in the terminations for we (excl.) —
THEE, you; he — us (excl.) ; (with Natick also in we (excl.) — thee,
you) ; with Ojibwa, Algonkin, and Oee in the form for i — ^you (pL).
The other forms call for no comment.
From its phonetics Peoria, as said above, seems to resemble Fox
closely in some particulars. But its more northern relationships are
shown by the fact that the nominative pliural of the inanimate noun
ends in a, agreeing absolutely with Oee, and also by the fact that it
shares with Cree and Montagnais a set of teiminations that correspond
to the Fox interrogative conjimctiveand subjunctive, but lack the final
syllable m, whereas Ojibwa and Algonkin have the n even if the final
vowel may be lost.
In closing the discussion of Peoria it should be mentioned that
this language, together with Fox, Sauk, Kickapoo, and Shawnee, are
the only Algonquian languages in which every animate noun and
inanimate noun are known positively to end in the nominative singu-
lar in a and i, respectively (excluding cases in which wa is lost pho-
netically in Shawnee). ^ It is possible that others also may share this
feature. Menominee and Ojibwa should be especially investigated
with a view to securing additional information on this point.^
Nauok
That Natick belongs to the Central subdivision and not to the East-
em subdivision of the Eastern-Central major division of Algonquian
languages is patent from the personal terminations of the verb in the
present tense (affirmative form) of the indicative and suppositive
(subjunctive) modes. Compare the following tables, extracted from
EHot : '
I
we excl.
weinol.
thou
ye
he
they an.
Intrans. . .
n-
nr-mun
k-
k — mufm
a
-tt
-wog
ne ....
.^
.^
^^
k-th
k^mwof
fi-*
n—kfuog
us excl. . .
—
—
—
k—imun
k—imun
n — kfunnonoQ
us incl. . .
—
—
—
—
—
k—kqun
thee . . .
k—ah
k—^umun
—
—
—
k~k
k~kquoQ
you . . .
k—numufm
k—numun
—
—
—
k-kco
k—kaxMff
him . . .
«-{?]
n — oun
k-IT]
k — au
-uk
-ouh
them an. .
n—6og
n—6unonog
k—a>g
k—a)g
■uA
-imh
tt,themlxiiin.(7)
n — umun
n—umumun
k—wnun
k—Mmumwo
•umun '
['Um\
-umufog
1 Though the writer worked with the Mississippi band of Ojibwa (living at White Earth. Minn.)
only a short time, he was able to determine the tact that in the independent mode the termination for
THOU— MB in the same mode has a final whispered -4.
* In Mass. Hist, Soc. OoU., 2d ser., ix, Boston, 1832.
> Taken from forms in J. H. Trumbull's Natick Dictionary (Bull. t5. Bur. Amer. Ethnol.}.
MICBBL80N]
ALG0NQX7IAK UKOUIBTIC 0B0UP8
278
I
weexd.
welnol.
thou
y«
he
they an.
Intrans. . .
■on
-09
•«n
^
•ofir
-oKetUit
me ... .
_
__
-_
•eon
•€6g
•41
-heUU
usexd. . . .
—
—
—
-tog
-eog
■kqueog
-kqueog
USiDCl. . . .
—
—
—
—
—
thee ... .
•now
HMV
—
—
—
•kqtuan
■kqfuan
you ....
-"^
-nog
—
—
—
-kpudg
-kfuedg
him ....
-og
-ogkfit
ttvdt
-^
•ont
them (an.). .
-og
-ogktU
-adt
•^
•cni
-oJuttU
•a'luttit
tt, them Inan.C?)
•umon
-^mog
-uman
•umbg
-nk
^mokeUU
We will first take up the terminations of the indicative, i — ^you,
T£ intrans., ye — me resemble the correspondents in Peoria and
Menominee. Owing to the deficient orthography, a positive conclu-
sion as to which of these Natick most closely resen^bles in the forms
under discussion is not possible. It is probably the latter, we
(excl., intrans.); we — thee, you; thou, ye — us (excL); ye — ^him
patently are to be ' associated with the Algonkin equivalents (and
hence partly the Ojibwa ones), i, we (excl.), thou, ye — them an.
presumably have the same affinities, he — us (incl.) resembles the
Shawnee (as certain others do as impUed by the agreement with
Algonkin) and Passamaquoddy (possibly also Peoria), he — ^him
apparently is to be connected with the Cree, Menominee, and Fox
equivalent, but the phonetics are uncertain; they an. — ^them an.
probably is to be associated with the Algonkin and Shawnee corre-
spondent. WE (excl.) — ^HiM has a counterpart in Passamaquoddy.
The forms with the inanimate object(s) are plainly composed of the
intransitive forms and the pronominal element to be seen in Fox
-Amv)^, -AvnowaUy etc.: see section 34 of the Algonquian sketch in the
Handbook of American Indian Languages {Bulletin Jfi, B. A. £.), pt . 1 .
The final n in i — rr, thou — rr, he — rr presumably is a purely phonetic
accretion. It should be mentioned expressly that -umwog they an. —
rr is not to be directly connected with Oee -AmwAg, as is shown by
the forms of they an. — me, thee (Cree ni — gwAg, Jci — gwAg^ respec-
tively). The corresponding inanimate forms of Delaware should be
compared.
It should be noticed that the personal terminations of the supposi-
tive mode do not have the n as do the Ojibwa group and Delaware,
thus agreeing with Fox, etc . , Ci ee-Mon tagnais, Menominee, and Mcmac .
A detailed discussion is uncalled for. Most of the forms have the
closest correspondence to Fox. The following find their closest corre-
spondents in Delaware: he — thee, he — ^you, he — them (one form)
an., THEY an.; intransitive, they an. — me, they an. — thee, they
an. — YOU, THEY an. — ^him, they an. — ^them; he, they an. — us
(excl.) resemble the Delaware correspondents.
20903^—28 ETH— 12 18
274
CLASSIFICATIOK OF ALGONQUIAN TRIBES [bth. ann.28
The tenninations of the **pr«t;er" tense of the suppositive mode
are patently allied to those of the present tense of the same mode.
The distinctive mark is a final 8. It will be observed from the
following table that the endings for he — ^mb, he — ^him, he — them
an. correspond to the Fox potential subjunctive:
Intrans.
me . .
usexcl.
us incl.
thee .
you
him
them .
It, them In-
an.(?)
I
we excl.
we ind.
thou
ye
-oi
-ogkis
•as
-^kit
^_
^^
-ta»
•fdgktu
—
—
—
•eogkut
•not
-no^ktM
— .
—
—
-ndgkus
-nogkut
—
—
—
•wtgkut
-nogkutfu
•<u
•dgktu
-nogkus
•nogkutut
•as
-^ktu
•umot
•^mogkut
-vmtfM
•4im6gktt9
he
-ogkis
they an.
-ohettis
-kgueogkns
•kqtteas
•kqitedgkus
-OS
•OS
-^ukis
-(e)hfttis
-kqueogkus
-^mueas
-kquedgkus
•ahtUis
-akettis
'umiUuuis
The negative verb is formed by the insertion of -a>-*'(o), which
apparently corresponds to Delaware -wi-. Examples are: Natick
huppaumuncop i bid not pat thee, Delaware atta Ic^pendolowip i did
NOT HEAR THEE.
The inanimate plural of nouns resembles the Piegan and Cheyenne
forms.
The cluster sJc is kept as in Cree and the Eastern subtype of the
Eastern-Central major division of Algonquian languages; the com-
bination of a sibilant + p and t presumably become *p and 't, respec-
tively, though this is not certain, owing to the deficient alphabet:
Cree micpun it is snowing, snow. Fox m€'pu- to snow, Natick
muhpoo IT snows; Cree mictig wood. Fox metegwi tree, Shawfiee
^tegwij Ojibwa me'tig (Turtle Mountain), Natick mehtug, Delaware
mehitiuckj Minsi michtuk; Cree miskawew (Lacombe) he finds him.
Fox m€'k- TO FIND, Malecite muskuwan he found her, Natick
miskom HE FINDS it; Cree mAskwA bear, Fox ma'kvxi, Shawnee
^'kvxiy Ojibwa ma'kwa, Peoria maxkwa, Natick mosq. (There are
also cases where a sibilant apparently is retained before p in Natick.)
The characteristic consonantic clusters of the Eastern subtype are
wanting, and it should be noticed that I also is lacking, confirming
the opinion that Natick belongs to the Central type.
Owing to the deficient alphabet it is difficult to determine the true
consonantic clusters of the language. The groups -d^ and -^Jc- and
'bp- are merely graphic for strong sonants so characteristic of many
American Indian languages. The accretion -n-, -^n- occurs but does
not agree with Ojibwa in usage, now having it where lacking in
Ojibwa, now lacking it where Ojibwa has it. Thus, wompi white,
M1CHBL80N] ALGONQUIAN UNGUISTIC GROUPS 275
Ojibwa wdbij Fox wdpi; wonkquasis fox (really a diminutive), Ojibwa
wd'guc; anogqs star, Ojibwa anang, Delaware aUangu€y Peoria
alangwa, Fox Andgv/^, Cree aidk (for the phonetics, see the discussion
of Cree, p. 239).
The lexical correspondence with the dialects of the Central subtype
is far greater than is indicated in Trumbull's Natick Dictionary.
(The same may be remarked of the Pequot-Mohegan material pub-
lished by Speck and Prince.) However, at the present time it is
impossible to say in which language the greatest number of corre-
spondents are to be found.
Delawabe
Zeisberger's material as contained in his grammar ^ is not good:^
The forms of the various dialects are given without assigning each
form to its proper dialect (see Zeisberger, p. 113, footnote); in the
same paradigm some transitive forms have instrumental, while
others lack them; the spelling of one and the. same personal termi-
nation is frequently absolutely inconsistent (e. g., -quCy -Jce); some
passives are given as active transitive forms, and in at least one
instance (possibly in more; see below) an inanimate objective form is
given as animate. Under these unfortunate conditions the tables
here given for the present indicative and subjunctive are bound to
contain errors, for in the absence of Delaware informants represent-
ing the three dialects the writer has had to use discrimination as to
the rejection or retention of certain forms. For this reason it is
impossible to make very definite statements concerning the general
relationships of Delaware among Algonquian languages. Yet the
tables will have one result at least, albeit a negative one, namely, that
the common supposition that Delaware is intimately connected with
Eastern Algonquian (Micmac, Malecite, Passamaquoddy, Penobscot,
and Abnaki) is certainly a mistaken one. On the possibiUty that
the three Delaware divisions, Munsee, Unami, and Unalachtigo, were
really separate tribes, each having special points of contact with
different Central- Algonquian languages, though mutually inteUigible,
and that the apparent unity was only pohtical, see page 279.
1 A Oraxnmar of the Language of the Lenno Lenape or Delaware Indians, Philadelphia, 1830.
s Others also have criticized Zeisberger adversely (see Brinton, The LenAp6, p. 105, Philadelphia, 1886,
who holds that the criticisms were unnecessarily severe. Correct his last reference to 1860-70, p. 105 If).
276
CLASSIFICATION OF ALOONQUIAK TBIBES [■tr.amm.2S
i
1
1*{ li
^iaan^^BBrf « ■i,iii»
1
,1
8 1 Is
3f„gi ill 11
M g. ? ? S ^ ? $ f f 8 t
^
S ?
I
SI i
IS
I
IS
s
r
• ll
ll I
^
9
I
J
4C
^1
13
S
8
o a.
8 8
T
S
s
^ 3
I
IS
il
• 8
I
J
nr
8 S
I
^■■^ ^ ^
o
5 S 3
11
Q O
I
i i s §
I § 8 8
q o o e
— ^ —
T
ai
^ ^ ^
o
;3
T
.4<
o o «
«
8 i! i
T
« » »
K
I
3
a
d
a
^
MICBBLBON]
ALGONQXTIAN UNGUISTIC OBOX7P8
277
I
^
1
9 «
? ?
^
^
si «
i I I
H
ntif
I
t I I
it
i l|i
I
I I I I I
1
«4
I I I
2^
i
I
1
-r •?
ill f
9 i
a 3 3 a ^
a
a
We will first discuss the in-
dependent mode. The first
thing that will be noticed is
the diversity of forms for one
and the same person as sub-
ject and object. Such diver-
sity is not found among other
Algonquian languages and at
once arouses suspicion that
the multiplicity of forms is
due to the fact that the dif-
ferent forms really belong to
separate dialects. When we
note further that the different
forms point to contact with
different Algonquian lan-
guages, the probabihty of this
inference is heightened. Thus,
n' — neen we (excl. intrans.),
¥ — loneen we (excl.) — thee,
1c' — in«6nTHOU, YE — us (excl. ) ,
agree with Cree-Montagnais;
n' — Khena we (excl. , intrans.) ,
V — lohhena we (excl. ) — thee,
F — ihhena thou, ye — ^us
(excl.) agree with Fox and
Passamaquoddy; n' — a i —
HIM, F — a THOU — ^HiM agree
with Passamaquoddy, Shaw-
nee, and Ojibwa; n' — arva i —
HIM, k^ — awa THOU — ^him with
Fox, Menominee, and Cree-
Montagnais ; n' — guna he — ^us
(excl.) agrees with Passama-
quoddy, Shawnee, and Peo-
ria(?); n' — guneen he — us
(excl. ) with Fox, Cree-Montag-
nais, and Ojibwa; n' — aneen
we (excl.) — ^him agrees with
Ojibwa and Cree-Montagnais;
n' — oJihena we (excl.) — ^him
agrees with Fox.
The cognates of the remain-
ing forms so far as available
278 CLASSIFICATION OF ALGONQUIAN TBIBES [BTH.ANy.28
will now be given : rC — awaik^ V — awak i — them an., thou — them an.,
respectively, have correspondents in Fox, Menominee, and Cree-
Montagnais; V — awavxi ye — ^him agrees with Menominee and Cree-
Montagnais; (n' ?) — gunaruikj (V ?) — gunaruiJc they an. — ^us (excl.
and incL, respectively) agree with Fox, Fort Totten Cree, and Ojibwa
(the former also with the Cree of Horden and Montagnais) ; Jc' — jjputca
HE — YOU (pi.) has a correspondent in Shawnee, Passamaquoddy, and
Ojibwa; F — guwawdk they an. — ^you (pi.), one in Fox, Menominee,
and Cree-Montagnais; n' — gun, Jc* — j^nhave counterparts in the Mon-
tagnais forms for on — ^me, te, respectively; w* — ^he (in trans.) has a
correspondent in Eastern Algonquian, -^ he intrans. corresponds to
Fox, Shawnee, and Peoria -tcxi, Cree -Wf Montagnais -u; -goJc they
an. — THEM an. is a passive and corresponds to Fox -gogi; the forms
n'-, k' — Uy len; V-; ¥ — i; -wok; n' — ky ¥ — k, v! — gook; V — gook are
common Central Algonquian; V — iAeTioofc ye — us (excl.) is a plural-
ized form of V — ihhena; V — awawak ye — them an. agrees with
Menominee and Cree-Montagnais and illustrates the same formation;
-awaU they an. — ^him (with phonetic diflFerences) is close to the
Ojibwa correspondent : if ii;'- is to be restored, it coincides exactly;
as it stands it agrees with the Passamaquoddy correspondent; the
forms n' — gehhenaf ¥ — gehhimo are palpably passives and really should
not have been included; -gol he — ^him, to judge from Shawnee and
Passamaquoddy, is really a passive; as a plural they an. — ^him,
it seems an extension of this; cf. n' — geneen (graphic variant for
n' — guTieen); the same appUes to k' — geneen (Fox ke — gundna;
there are correspondents in Ojibwa and Cree); w^ — anawak (pre-
sumably a variant of w' — aneuxik) in its last part decidedly resembles
Cree mowaneimin they (indefinite third person plural animate) abe
BATING THEM (tliird person plural animate) ; ^ so it is clear that the
terminations with nevx> are built up on some such system, though it
is possible that some of the forms contain inanimate objects, not ani-
mate objects as given in the table (see the tables of the Ojibwa and
Algonkin independent mode, pp. 263, 264). The forms n' — an, k' — an,
w^-^-an are clearly of the same formation as Malecite kiian thou
TELLEST him; tian, otian he telx.s him (stemfi); unfortunately there
is no example available in Malecite for i — him. The forms with inani-
mate object(s) show the same type of formation as the Natick corre-
spondents. The conjectural initial k' restored by the writer is con-
firmed by Sapir's notes. In closing the discussion of the independent
mode it may be pointed out that it is impossible for one and the same
dialect to contain both F — guwa and (F ?) — gwwawak (see the tables
for Fox, Cree, Shawnee, and Ojibwa).
The present subjunctivfe does not require so detailed a report. It
has the nasal as have Ojibwa and Peoria, but otherwise the forms are
i Horden, p. 115.
mcHUBON] ALGONQUIAN LINGUISTIC GBOUPS 279
far closer to Fox and Natick. The forms with the third person
animate, singular and plural, as subject are the same in structure as
those of the latter in nearly all cases and represent a formation other-
wise unknown in. Central and Eastern Algonquian. Some of the
terminations seem pecuhar to Delaware.
The forms -iiike they an. — ^me, -dnde we (excl. or incl. ?) — them,
which, following Zeisberger, one would be forced to consider transi-
tive forms of the subjunctive, in reaUty are. indefinite passive con-
junctives (Fox -^gi, -etd, Peoria -dnffi, -^nda, respectively). Again
following Zeisberger, -geyeiike, ^eyane, -geyegue they an. — us
(excl.), THEE, YOU, respectively, would have to be considered transi-
tive forms, but they are simple passives. The termination -^manque
WE (excl.) — THEM an. really contains an inanimate object (see
the tables for Fox and Ojibwa). Observe that i — ^rr has an exact
correspondent in Shawnee. Certain persons have n' and Jc^ prefixed
indiscriminately in the same forms and have been omitted from the
above scheme as unreal (n' and Jc^ are suggestive of the indicative).
Delaware has a ^, and panne preterite. The former is shared by
Peoria, Natick, and Micmac; the latter is found in Ojibwa, Oee,
Montagnais, Malecite, and Penobscot (for the combination of both in
the subjunctive mode, see the discussion of Ojibwa, p. 269).
The suffix of the future -tsch is presumably the same as Fox -ted*
VEEILY.
It should be mentioned that Delaware has a relative mode that
corresponds to the Fox, Shawnee, Micmac, and Peoria conjunctive.
The forms given are too few to constitute a complete series but the
important point that the first person singular intransitive ends in
-^a, as in Shawnee (cf. Micmac), is certain.
Delaware has consonantic clusters but to what an extent is not
clear from the inadequate phonetic system employed by Zeisberger.
Some of these clusters are due to changes of a sibilant with a voice-
less stop, e. g., u'xhwdu (Sapir) woman, Cree ishve'u. Others are
patently due to the eUmination of vowels, e. g., n^miiguneen he gives
us (excl.). Fox nemlnegundn^, tulpe turtle, Abnaki tolbay Scaticook
tiUlipds (really a diminutive), Natick tconuppdsog (pi.). Others are
due to the combination of the signs for the preterite with the. final
consonant of the present. A nasal before stops agrees with Peoria
and Ojibwa in this use as opposed to Fox, Shawnee, Cree, Montag-
nais, and Menominee. The origin of other clusters is quite obscure.
It is dpubtful whether there are true long consonants in Delaware;
there is reason to suspect that their apparent existence is due merely
to a faulty or deficient phonetic system.
It was shown above how Delaware exhibits great diversity in
points of contact with other Algonquian languages; attention may
here be drawn to the fact that since Fox and Shawnee are closely
280 CLASSIFICATION OF ALOONQUIAN TBIBES [bth.ann.88
related to each other and both to the Eastern Algonquian languages
(see the discussion of Sauk, Fox, etc., p. 258), agreement on the part
of Delaware with any of these would imply a certain amount of agree-
ment with the others, and as Fox has some decided points of contact
.with Cree, a similar state of affairs exists as to the latter language.
However, these generaUties do not answer specific questions. Though
it is hazardous, as noted above, to give an opinion on the subject, the
writer ventures to believe that Delaware as Zeisberger has presented
it is not a single dialect but a composite. The facts of the case prob-
ably will be best satisfied by assuming one dialect the closest relation-
ship of which was with Shawnee, but which shared with Fox (the pho-
netic representative of) -pena (Shawnee -pe), and another the closest
relationship of which is with Oee-Montagnais, both of which assumed
dialects had points of contact with Ojibwa and Natick. In the opinion
of the writer there is not sufficient evidence at present to warrant the
beUef that another dialect had especially close relations with Eastern
Algonquian, though it is possible there was a dialect that shared a
few forms with Eastern Algonquian that were not shared by the
other Delaware dialects. But all these theories must remain con-
jectures more or less plausible till all the Delaware dialects shall have
been entirely restudied with the aid of living informants.
EASTERN SUBTYPE
The existing dialects composing this group are Micmac, Malecite,
Passamaquoddy, Penobscot, and Abnaki. As mentioned above,
these are all characterized by pecuUar consonantic clusters and by
certain grammatic terminations. However, as compared with Black-
foot, Cheyenne, or Arapaho they belong in the Central group,. for
there are numerous patent correspondents to the latter in vocabu-
laries and in the discussion of Sauk, Fox, etc., it has been shown how
intimately they are related to Fox and Shawnee in the verbal termi-
nations. The correspondence in vocabulary with the Central type
is far more general than has been supposed. The pecuhar termi-
nations are not very startling and show no more speciaUzation than
those of other Algonquian languages of the Central subtype. The
pecuUar terminations of the Micmac verb are due to the fact that the
supposed indicatives are really correspondents to the Fox conjunctive.
So in its last analysis the consonantal clusters are the distinguishing
feature of the group. Below is a Ust of consonantic clusters in
each of the following: Micmac (from one of the writer's longei* texts),
Malecite (from one of Mr. MechUng's longer texts), Passamaquoddy
(from one of Doctor Qatschet's texts, of moderate length), and
Penobscot (from Prof. J. Dyneley Prince's glossary in his article on
Penobscot in Amer. Anthr., n. s.;XU, No. 2, 183-208, 1910):
MICHSLBON]
ALQONQXJIAN LINGUISTIC GBOUP8
281
MICMAC
Initial
Second consonant of duster
OODSC^
nant
P
b
t
pi
d
ft
9
m
n
I
9
te
4i
Lt
P
pk
pi
b
bn
bl
t
ip
tk
d
dm
dn
dl
k
*P
kt
kl
k9
kte
kht
9
gm
ffn
gi
m
mp
mt
md
mk
ml
IM
mte
n
np
fU
nfti
nm
fW
nte
ndj
I
IP
lb
U
Id
tt
ig
Im
In
U
Itc
9
•P
8t
Mk
tm
«n
»l .
te
tek
dj
•
djk
djm
djn
djl
X
xt
X9
xte
1 Probable mishearing for qk; nk In the Maledte and Passamaquoddy tables likewise is ik.
The semivowel w occurs after 6, d, fc, g, n, I, «, fcl, pk, tk, nk, ak, ick.
The only long consonants observed are it and kk. These are of
rare occurrence.
It has not been possible as yet to determine whether all these clus-
ters occur in the same morphologic parts of words or are due to com-
binations of different morphologic components. The same statement
applies to the clusters of the other languages discussed.
In the text the following clusters occur finally: tk, pk, mk, nk, Ik,
tck, djk, sk, kt Initially only kl occurs; w in' initial combinations
occurs only after k,
MALECITE
Initial
consonant
P
b
P
b
i
tp
tb
d
k
kp
9
m
mp
n
np
I
IP
9
»P
t
tc
Second member of cluster
pi
kt
nt
8t
d
pk
tk
mk
nk
Ik
8k
tck
9
t
m
n
I
9
P«
tc
tg
tm
tl
dl
km
kn
kl
k»
kte
gm
gn
tnn
mM
Im
In
pl
il
Is
282
CLASSIFICATION OF ALGONQUIAN TBIBES
[BTR. ANN. 28
The semivowel w occurs after 6, X:, g, s, tkj tg, pJc, sJc.
The following clusters of three consonants occur: msJcy sick, aid.
The initial clusters that occur in the text are: «t, «p, Jem, In, th,
pSj sly U. The semivowel w in initial combinations occurs only after
k and g. The clusters which occur terminally are: Jet, ktc, pic.
PASSAMAQUODDY
Initial
Second member of cluster
conso-
nant
P
h
t.
d
1
k 9
m
pm
n
I
9
te
U
P
Pt
pn
•
b
t
tk
d
dl
k
kp
kt
kM
kU
9
m
mt
md
mk
mn
flM
n
up
nl
M
ttn
/
U
t9
In
«
»P
tt
tk
tc
tek
X
xt
xk
1
Ten
xl
X»
The following clusters of three consonants occur: TUk, nsk, ksk,
pskf sick, xsm.
The semivowel w occurs after k, gr, Z, sky xk, tk^ Ig.
The following two long consonants occur: ss, U,
These clusters hav6 been observed initially: kt, kp, km, ks, ktc.
Finally, the cluster sk was observed. The semivowel w was noted
as occurring after k and g of initial consonants.
PENOBSCOT
Second member o( duster
Initial
I
pi
9
consonant
P
b
t
d
k
9
m
n
z
P
v*
b
bt
t
. tk
d
k
k9
9
9l
m
md
mk
mg
n
nb
nt
nd
nk
ng
ng
I
It
Id
Ik
l9
In
t
sp
at
Md
8k
4
zn
2i
zn
te
tek
MiCOTLBON] ALGONQUIAK LINGUISTIC GBOUPS 283
The semivowel w occurs after i, g, d, I, m, sJc^ mi, tc.
The only true consonantal clusters observed initially were «fc, sp.
After initial g and Jc, w occurs. The only final consonantic cluster
noted was ps.
The following long consonants were noted: JcJcy pp, U, 88,
Two clusters of three consonants were observed: bsk, nsk.
An examination of the tables will show that the old view that
Micmac alone of Eastern Algonquian differed especially from Central
Algonquian by reason of clusters, is incorrect.
The consonantal clusters of such words that have known equiva-
lents in Central Algonquian are due for the greater part to the elimi-
nation of vowels. Thus Micmac Jcesaptug afteb he looked at it
(for Jceai-^dpi-^t+ug; Fox TcicdpitAg*) ^ WAfik in the morning (Fox
wdbAg*), m^indu devil (Fox mAuitdw^), ehnied he went on (Malecite
dimialit when he (obs.) went away, Fox initial stem Anemi ton
way) ; heinOf Penobscot alno&e Indian (Shawnee TiUeni, Ojibwa ineniy
Fox ineniw^, Cree iyiniw bian) ; Penobscot spuniki heaven, Abnaki
spemk HEAVEN (Passamaquoddy spemek high, Cree i8hpimikf Ojibwa
ishpimingf Shawnee spemegi, Fox a^perrv^g*, Peoria pdmingi (cf. Me-
nominee AcpdrnhfA) ; Micmac Tcospemk at the lake (Passamaquoddy
Tdispemxxk on a lake ; Cree huspamixv) road which goes beside tim-
ber WHERE THERE IS WATER); PcnobsCOt pcbovikik IN THE NORTH
(Fox pepdn^-^a'ldg^)] Penobscot wohtegua wild (k>ose (for wob- cf.
Fox wApi", Natick vxympir white) ; Penobscot n^wewelAamen i know
IT (-€?- = Fox -^ne-) ; Micmac e\xaddjig dogs ; Malecite ulejmis (really
a diminutive), Delaware alum; Ojibwa animosh, Fox Anemo*^, Natick
anum, Cree ddm (for the phonetics see the discussion of Cree, p. 239) ;
Abnaki kidasni'm' (Sapir) thy stone (Fox IcetA'seni^m^j cf. Abnaki
dm' stone) ; Malecite Jc'i^rnQ'seba" (Sapir) ye run (Fox Jcep&musdpwa) .
When a vowel is lost after I (corresponding to Fox n, Shawnee and
Delaware J) and a consonantal cluster arises this way, or if the I thereby
becomes final, the preceding vowel takes an o (u) tinge; if the preced-
ing vowel be i, then o attaches itself thereto. To make clear the
examples of this it is necessary to state that the cluster pw becomes p
or b (note that pw does not occur in the tables given above). Thus
Malecite JcAnimiol i see thee (stem nimi; intervocalic instrumental
A lost), Passamaquoddy JcteJcAmAl i strike thee (-m- is an instru-
mental particle) ; compare Fox Jce — ne, Shawnee Jce — le; for Malecite
iiimmiolpa i see you (pi.), Passamaquoddy htehnulpa i strike you
(pi.) ; cf . Fox Jce—^pwa, Shawnee ie — lepvxi. (It may be as well to
mention that Fox ke — nepvxi is made up of ke — pvxi and ne, and is not
a morphologic unit.) Micmac da^Amvlkvfi he strikes us, inclusive,
corresponds to Fox ^meuAgwe, in which m is the instrumental particle,
e the phonetic insert, UAgwe (Shawnee -lagwe) the termination for
284 CLASSIFICATION OF ALGONQUIAN TBIBES [bth. lit n. 28
HB — ^us (incl.) of the conjunctive mode. The participial -uUUdg in
Micmac (and the corresponding forms of the other dialects) corre-
sponds to Fox -ne^tdgi, in which n is the instrumental particle, e the
phonetic insert, tl the sign of reciprocity, tcigi the third person animate
intransitive of the participial.
It should be noted that the elimination of vowels sometimes causes
nasals and liquids to become jsyllabic, a phenomenon which Sanskrit-
ists call samprasdraxuiy e. g. Passamaquoddy tpkvxixsan bed stone
(pipe) (cf. Fox mechV' + Asen*) . •
Especially should it be observed that the clusters, consisting of a
sibilant + X; or p, are kept exactly as in Cree (see the discussion of (Tree,
p. 238). Thus Cree amisk beaveb, Stockbridge (Edwards) amisque,
Ojibwa ami'Jcj Delaware amochJCj Fox ame'hv^, Shawnee hamdJcwa^
Peoria amaJcwaj Abnaki pepSnemeskB winteb beaveb, Micmac pA2-
Hmskw BEAVEB OF THiBD YEAB (Rand) ; Cree miskawew he finds him,
HEB, Fox me^kawdv/* he finds him, heb, Natick miekam he finds rr,
Malecite mv;skuwan he found heb; Cree ishpimii above, Ojibwa
iahpimingj Fox d'pemegij Peoria pdmingif Shawnee spemegif Menominee
icpdmiyA above, Penobscot spumH heaven, Abnaki spenik heaven,
Passamaquoddy spem^A: high; Cree huspamuw boad which goes
beside timbeb whebe thebe is wateb, Micmac ^ospem^ at the lake,
Passamaquoddy kispemuk on a lake; Cree iskwew woman. Fox
Vhvdv/^, Natick aquaw^ Delaware ochqueu, Micmac Jcesigo-eakv/^ old
WOMAN. Since sp and sJc are original, it is probable that 8t is like-
wise. The cluster is not common, and the writer has not found in
Central Algonquia^ analogues as yet to such words as contain it.
Yet it is perhaps possible to establish the claim indirectly. Micmac
Jcesewistodidj means after they had finished speaking; it is to be
presumed that the sto corresponds to Fox *td (see section 21.7 of the
Algonquian sketch in the Handbook of American Indian Languages,
part 1). The H points phonetically to an original *st. These clusters
strongly point to a more northern origin than Fox had.
It is true that the origin of many clusters can not be explained
at present, but it is not unreasonable to believe that the application
of the foregoing principles will explain many more when our knowl-
edge of the languages shall have increased, and perhaps phonetic
laws yet to be discovered will account for the remainder. For the
consonantic clusters in Piegan, Cheyenne, Arapaho, and Eastern
Algonquian are so fundamentally different that it is improbable that
any of their types are original. It may be assumed, then, provision-
ally that the Central type, from which true consonantic clusters are
lacking, with certain limitations, shows the most primitive condition
of Algonquian languages.
MICHILSON]
ALOONQUIAN LIK0UI8TIC GROUPS
285
An original o or u tinder unknown conditions seems to umlaut the
vowel of the preceding syllable to o, u, as does postconsonantal w.
Thus, Malecite tiogul he was told; this stands for *tegol* (cf. Shaw-
nee otegoV HE WAS told), in which o—goV is the passive termination
and te the initial stem. Penobscot Jc'namiogana he sees us (ind.),
Abnaki Jc'namiogonna are additional illustrations. The terminations
are for *Jce — guna (cf . Shawnee) ; -T^, the instrumental + the e insert,
has suffered the changes shown above and the h is lost ; the stem is
nami. Passamaquoddy nddcamugun he strikes us (excl.) and
Jcdekamugun he strikes us (incl.) are for ♦ne — meguna and *Jce —
meguna, respectively; m is the instrumental particle; e the phonetic
insert which has been umlauted to u. Other examples of this umlaut-
ing will be mentioned in the discussion of the verbal endings. Exam-
ples in which a w (either maintained or lost) has caused umlaut are:
Penobscot wimivJcw he sees me (for n'rir), Abnaki n'namioJe, Passa-
maquoddy ndeJeamvJc he strikes bce (Fox ne — guxi] rest explained
shove) ; JctekamuJc he strikes thee (FoxJce — gwa).
Below are tables of such forms of the Passamaquoddy independent
mode (present tense) and of the Micmac conjunctive (which id used
Uke the indicative) mode as the writer has been able to extract from
Doctor Oatschet's papers.
PASSAMAQUODDY PRESENT INDEPENDENT MODE
I
we excl.
we incl.
thou ye
he
they (an.)
Intr&ns. .
n-
n—bAn
k-bAn
k-
k-ba
•wuk
rae . .
us excl.
us Incl.
thee .
you
him. .
them (an
.)
l-r
k—lpa
n—a
n~ak
k—lpen
k—lpen
n—an
k—anumk
k—i
k—ibAn
k—a
k-ak
k-iba
k—ibAn
k—awa
k—nwa
n-k
n—gun
k—i;un
k-k
k—guwa
11— oi
u — a
n—gunwuk
k—gunwuk
k-guk
k—gua
•awal
n-^wa
MICMAC CONJUNCTIVE MODE
1
we excl.
we incl.
thou
ye
he
they (an.)
me . . .
..^
_
,^_
-fit
-U
■4djik
us excl.
—
—
-iek
-iek
us incl.
—
—
—
—
-lk8
•Ikwik
thee .
'I
-Uk
—
—
-»k
skik
you
-lox
'Uk
—
—
•lox
•lox
him . .
-uk
-uget
-ox
•adl
-adldl
them (an
.) .
-gik
-ugidjik
•
-ox
•cdji
•adi4iik
286
CLASSIFICATION OF ALGONQUIAN TRIBES" [ith. akk. 28
In comparing the forms with other Algonquian languages it is
necessary to keep in mind the phonetic changes hinted at above.
In the Passamaquoddy independent mode the u and w umlaut occurs
in the forms for he — me, us (incL and excL), thee; thet an. — ^mb,
us (excl. and ind.), thee, you. The agreement in the use of I with
Shawnee, etc., in contrast with Fox, Ojibwa, Cree, etc., n should be
noted; also the elimination of vowels and the phonetic changes
involved.
While treating of the linguistic relations of Fox and Shawnee, it
was necessary to treat Passamaquoddy at some length. It was
shown that Passamaquoddy is very closely related to Fox on the
one hand and to Shawnee on the other. The form for we (incl.) —
THEM an. approximates most closely the corresponding Cree and
Montagnais form, though not identical with them. The relationship
is the same in the case of we (excl.) — ^him. This last approximates
the form in Cree, Montagnais, Delaware (one form), and Ojibwa; it coin-
cides with, the analogue in Natick and by chance with that in Chey-
enne. We say by chance, as Cheyenne has no other special agreements
with Eastern Algonquian, whereas, as was pointed out in the discussion
of Fox, Natick happens to share another termination. The form for
THEY an. — us (incl.) approximates the Cree, Montagnais, and Me-
nominee analogues. The agreement of the last named with Passamar
quoddy is midoubtedly fortuitous, due simply to the fact that
Menominee as well as Eastern Algonquian shows certain affinities with
Cree-Montagnais. The form for ye — them an. apparently is the
same as that for ye — him. The form for they an. — ^us (excl.) is
based on the same formation as they an. — ^us (incl.). The fact that
Passamaquoddy shares certain persons of the independent mode with
Ojibwa was shown in the discussion of Fox. But it should be noted
that all such persons are likewise shared by Shawnee.
There is given below a table of the Abnaki present independent
mode so far as the writer has been able to extract the terminations
from Doctor Sapir's notes:
I
we excl.
we ind.
thou
ye
he
they an.
Intrans. . .
ni'in-)
(n)— fcjna'
W- (k-)
k-*o'
■
•wak*
me. . . .
^—
....
k-i
(n)-^P*'
uaexcl. . .
—
—
k-ibina'
k-ibina'
[{ny-gabiTta']
usincL . .
—
—
—
—
thee . . .
k-i
X—Wtna'
—
—
—
k-99k'
you •. . .
\-l.bar
k—Wina
—
—
him . . .
(n>-4-
(n)— 46/wa'
k~4
k—Aftiba'
o-i'
them an. .
{n)—Avk'
k—Apk'
k—Amba'
o—\i
MiCBBLSON] ALGONQUIAN UNOUISTIC GBOUPS 287
A detailed discussion is uncalled for. It should, however, be noted
that Abnaki agrees with Fox as opposed to Shawnee (and Passama-
quoddy) in the forms for ye — ^him, them an. Initial n apparently is
lost before certain consonants. This accounts for the strange appear-
ance of certain forms. The form for we (excl.) — him agrees with Fox
as opposed to Passamaquoddy. he — ^us (excl.) is the equivalent of Fox
ni — gopena, of the indefinite passive, independent mode. It may be
noted that Malecite agrees with Passamaquoddy in this respect.
From Doctor Sapir's notes it would seem that in Malecite a faint final
v) is retained after Jc' where etymologically required, which is lost (or
at least not recorded by Doctor Oatschet) in Passamaquoddy. The
writer's available material is too scanty in the case of Malecite and
Penobscot to give tables for them; but it is certain that they agreed
essentially with Passamaquoddy and Abnaki.
As Eastern Algonquian shows certain points in conomion with
Cree-Montagnais as opposed to Ojibwa, etc. (see pp. 238, 284) it may
be that the pAn preterite is really a point of contact between East-
em Algonquian and the former; but this is forcing matters, as cer-
tain personal endings of Eastern Algonquian agree with Ojibwa,
etc. (those shared also by Shawnee), as opposed to Cree-Montagnais.
(For additional points of contact between Eastern Algonquian
and Cree-Montagnais, see p. 245, in the discussion of the Micmac
conjunctive.) Despite the usual view of the subject, the relations
of Eastern Algonquian with Delaware are not close. On consult-
ing the tables given in the discussion of Delaware it will be seen
how few terminations of the independent mode phonetically coin-
cide with those of Passamaquoddy. There are no agreements be-
tween the two that are not shared either by Fox or Shawnee; as a
matter of fact, Delaware agrees in some cases with Fox as opposed
to Shawnee and Eastern Algonquian. But, as was shown in the
discussion of Delaware, the existing material is poor, and it is
dear that the several Delaware dialects had different linguistic
relations. At present, however, there is not sufficient evidence to
show that any one of the dialects had especially close relations with
the Eastern branch of the Eastern-Central group of Algonquian
languages.
A table of the Micmac conjunctive from Doctor Oatschet's notes is
here given because the one from the writer's notes and texts contains
too many unfilled schedules. The table is supplemented by the form
for HE — us (excl.), Amet, and these intransitive forms are given:
I WE (excl.) WE (incl.) thou ye he they (an.) it, they (inan.)
-i 'ieg -igvxi -in -yo -d -djig
288 CLA8SIFICATI0K OF ALOONQTJIAN TBIBE8 [■tb.aiih.28
The forms which Doctor Oatschet gives as -adl, and -adidl are con-
sidered broken Micmac at St. Anne de Restigou^he. The current
forms are -Adjl, -adidjl, yet one of the informants, a woman upward
of eighty, constantly used the forms given by Doctor Gatschet. The
qutation of dialectic variation must be faken into account, as Doctor
Gatschet's material came from New Brunswick. Final surds and
sonants are exceedingly hard to distinguish at St. Anne de Resti-
gouche, but this difficulty is not encountered with those occupying a
medial position. Iq the opinion of* the vniter there are, finally,
neither true surds nor sonants, only intermediates.
A detailed discussion of the forms is uncalled for. There is I cot-
responding to Fox n, of course, but the forms themselves morpho-
logicaUy approximate very closely the Fox analogues; as was pointed
out in the discussion of Sauk, etc., however, certain terminations
resemble the Fox participial rather than the subjunctive, thus par-
tially agreeing with the Peoria conjunctive and the Cree subjunctive.
The termination for the first person singular intransitive apparently
coincides phonetically with the Shawnee and Delaware analogue.
Tlie form for he — us (excl.) is important as showing the fact that
the relations with Ojibwa, Delaware, and Natick are not close. It
should be noted that the forms with the third person singular ani-
mate as subject suggest relationship with the Fox subjunctive rather
than conjunctive. The terminations -adl emd -adidl certainly con-
tain the obvialitive l, but though the former is clear enough in for-
mation (rod-hl), the latter is not.
It may be noted that there is another conjunctive form for the
third singular, namely, -tc, e. g., pemieic when he walks along;
this resembles closely the Fox analogue. The other terminations
seem to be based on the ordinary conjunctive mode with the addition
of a suffix (1) g with certain phonetic modifications.
There is a dual, e. g., Jcispanadidjig they are tibed, as compared
with Jcispanedjig they two abe tibed. The actual terminations
seem to be the same ; the -di- on the face of it apparently corresponds
to Fox -tl-, the sign of reciprocity. This is brought out by such
expressions as mAdydidjig they (more than two) fought. The
analysis of the example is rriAd to fight, ^ instrumental particle, -di-
reciprocal sign, -djig terminations. The expression then means
they fought together, the idea of pluraUty or duality originally
not being expressed. Then the later restriction of such forms to
plurality would be merely a specialization.
To sum up the general relations of Eastern Algonquian, we may
say that the group is very intimately related to Fox and Shawnee;
next, to Cree-Montagnais; not closely to Ojibwa; and remotely to
Delaware and Natick. The relations with Piegan are not sufficiently
clear to justify a positive statement, but it should be observed that
MiCHHLBON] ALGONQXJIAN LINGUISTIC 0B0UP8 289
certain personal terminations of the independent mode have close
analogues (which are shared by Sauk, Fox, Ejckapoo, and partially
by Shawnee).
The material at the writer's disposal does not permit a strong
characterization of the individual traits of the various dialects com-
posing the Eastern subtype of the major Eastem-Central division of
Algonquian languages. According to J. Dyneley Prince and W. Mech-
ling (personal communications) , Penobscot, Abnaki, Passamaquoddy,
and Malecite are more closely related to one another than any one is to
Micmac. According to information received, Micmac can under-
stand Malecite without much difficulty. A characteristic of Micmac
is the apparent lack of forms corresponding to the independent mode
of the other dialects; but the latter have forms corresponding to the
Micmac conjunctive. The preterite "indicative" of Micmac is based
on the conjunctive, whereas in the other dialects it is based on the
forms of the independent mode; but the principle of formation is
alike. According to Prince, the differentiation of Penobscot and
Abnaki is comparatively recent. The writer, however, does not
consider Abnaki nasalized vowels archaic; on the contrary, he
believes the Penobscot pure vowels more original. Passamaquoddy
and Malecite are very similar to each other and may prove to be
practically identical. In closing the discussion of the Eastern sub-
type, the writer thinks it well to add that in his judgment the r which
appears in the works of the older writers was an intermediate between
r and I; hence they recorded it with the sound with which they
associated it.
Summary
Algonquian tribes linguistically fall into four major divisions:
Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Arapaho, and Eastern-Central. , The Black-
foot major group shows some unmistakable signs of contact with
Sauk, Fox, and Kickapoo of the Central subtype and with Eastern
Algonquian. Cheyenne exhibits affinities with the Ojibwa subdivi-
sion of Central Algonquian, though it has also some rather northern
affinities. It is premature to venture an opinion with which language
or languages Arapaho is to be most intimately associated. The
Eastern-Central major division is divisible into two subtypes. Central
and Eastern. The Central subtype has further groupings within itself :
Cree-Montagnais, Menominee, Sauk, Fox, Kickapoo, and Shawnee;
Ojibwa, Ottawa, Potawaitomi, Algonkin, and Peoria; Delaware (see
the discussion of this language, p. 279), and Natick. Eastern Algon-
quian may perhaps be divided into two groups, Micmac, on the one
hand, and the remaining extant dialects (which, collectively, may be
designated Abnaki), on the other. The very intimate connection of
Eastern Algonquian with Sauk, Fox, and Kickapoo, as well with
20903^—28 ETH— 12 19
290 CLASSIFICATION OF ALGONQUIAN TRIBES [itr. ann. 28
Shawnee, should be emphasized. Owing to the peculiarity in Micmac,
noted on page 289, it is not possible to be so confident as to whether
this relationship extends as intimately in this language; but the con-
junctive mode points in this direction.^
1 It wUl be noticed that on the aooompanytog map showing the distribution and interrelation of the
Algonquian dialects (pi. 103), there are many names of dialects not dealt with systematically in the texts.
This is because the existing material did not make such treatment feasible. The author does not doubt
that Nantiooke, etc., are Algonquian dialects. (Dr. Frank O. Speck, of the University of Pennsylvania,
has kindly made for the use of the writer extracts firom manuscripts in the library of the American
Philasophical Society, demonstrating that Nantiooke belongs to the Eastem-(3entral major division of
Algonquian languages. Unfortunately verbal forms were practically absent; so untU our knowledge of
Unami, Unalachtigo, and Munsee shall be mora extensive, it will not be ponlble to settle definitely the
exact position of Nantiooke. Hence it is probable that the other southern Algonquian dialects along
the Atlantic coast belong to the Eastern-Central division.) In this connection it may be stated that
Pennaoook is assigned to the A bnaki-liicmac group, partly for geographical reasons, partly on acoount of the
history of the tribe. The early French and English writers can not be relied on regarding the intimate
or remote relationships among the various Algonquian dialects, exoept where they oan be oorroborated
by existing dialects. The reason for this is not far to seek. As before stated (p. 237), the Ontral Algon-
quian dialects are very intimately related, and philology at the time had not reached a point where fine
distinctions oould be made. It will be remembered how recently it has been possible for philology to
determine the interrelations of the dialects within the major divisions of Indo-European languages, and
how deficient even to-day Is our knowledge of the interrelations of the major divisions of those languages.
Moreover, inaccurate phonetics would blur out many distinctive points. It is simply a waste of time to
attempt to unravel the vagaries of the orthography of the older writers in the case of dialects existing to-day.
The accompanying map does not attempt to represent the distribution of Algonquian dialects at any one
period. It will be remembered that our knowledge of the various tribes was not synchronous. It would
have been feasible to make a map showing their localities, with dates, provided the interrelations were not
shown; but the prime object was to show the interrelations. (A case In point is the localisation of the
habitat of the Sauk. They were first known in the eastem pminsnla of Michigan , only later in the locality
shown on the map.) The authority for the localisations can usually be found in this Handbook of American
Indians {BuUetin SO,B.A. E.). With respect to the map the following departures from the oofor acheme
should bie noted: Prince Edward Island and Cape Breton formed part of the Micmac territory. Mani-
toulin Island and the peninsula between Georgian Bay and lAke Huron were occupied by Ottawa and
the peninaula between Lakes Superior and Michigan east of the Menominee by Chippewa.
It may be noted that under the name Abnaki, the Abnaki (properly speaking), Malecite, Passamar
quoddy, and Penobscot are included.
The form Chippewa on the map foUows that of the Handbook of American Indians; the form OJibwa
in the text conforms to the orthography of the Handbook of American Indian Languages (Bulletin Ifi,
Bm A . ^•).
From Edwards' Observatfons on the Language of the Muhhekaneew Indians, reprinted in Mass. Hist.
Coll., 2d ser., x (Boston, 1823), p. 81 ff., some notes may be made on the language of the Indians of
Stockbridge, Mass., though unsystematically. The words amitfiM bkavkb, •pummticfc hxaven at once
show the dialect does not belong with Delaware. So does patniueaufc wk (exd. or incl.T) walkino
(Fox pdfuiMdipd^c or -pAgtpe) by lacking a nasal in the pronominal ending. The words npektuhfuU$eK-
nuh WE A&E TALL, nmeetteknuh we eat (both exclusive in formation) demonstrate that the dialect is
not to be associated with Natick, Delaware, or the Abnaki group. The termination n—nuk suggests that
the termination for we incl. intrans. was k—nuh: this last coincides with a variant Oee correspondent
given by Laoombe. On the other hand n—nuh and k—ntth resemble very much the Menominee corre-
spondents save the lack of the m syllable. On a later occasion the writer will return to this particular
point. Hera it may be said that the m + vowel is not so vitally important as the other portions of the
terminatfon. The phonetics of metooque wood are also against intimate relationship with Cree. The
word ktukwkunodhmuk i love you resembles closest the Natick form; but ndukuthunuw i love hdi
has a different look. The phonetics of nogh mt fathee suggest affinity with Delaware; cf. ntiSwa mt
FATHER (Sapir). These notes were made subsequent to the printing of the map (pi. 103).
It is needless to say that all Algonquian tribes and subtribes could not be shown on the map for want
of space.
ADDENDUM
It was impossible to insert in the text the results of the writer's
field work in the summer, autumn, and winter of 1912, but the most
important results may be summarized briefly here.
Piegan (of Montana) has whispered vowels terminally after w and
nasals; x is distinctly post-velar ; final Ic is distinctly aspirated. Gros
Ventre (Atsina) sheds little light on Arapaho, sharing with the latter
practically all deviations from normal Algonquian. Potawatomi dif-
fers more from Ojibwa, Ottawa, and Algonkin than these do from
one another. According to communications from Doctor Sapir of the
Geological Survey of Canada and Doctor Radin of the International
School of Ethnology and Archeology, the Ojibwa dialect at Samia,
Ontario, seems to be highly specialized. The intimation given in the
section on Delaware that Zeisberger's material represents no single
dialect was borne out by the writer's experience with the Munsee of
Kansas and the Delaware of Oklahoma. Apparently no distinction
can be drawn to-day between Unami and Unalachtigo. The pho-
netic system of Zeisberger is very deficient. Every stop occurs as
surd, sonant (after nasals), surd aspirate (terminally), and glottalized.
Voiceless I occurs medially before consonants in both Delaware and
Munsee, and terminally in the latter (where it seemingly is lost in the
former). Long consonants are common, also consonantic clusters,
owing largely to elimination of vowels. Umlaut is caused by w. On
the whole, both Delaware and Munsee have suffered very considerable
phonetic changes from normal Central Algonquian; Munsee is by far
the more archaic of the two. In Munsee whispered vowels occur
initially, medially, and terminally (after 'm?). In Delaware seemingly
they are found medially and terminally after w. In both, s, y, w, and I
occur glottalized as well. The variety of forms given in the table is
due in part to dialect mixture, in part to phonetic changes. Some of
the forms are due possibly to mishearing; some contain double
objects; others seemingly are to distinguish third persons; still others
owe their origin to causes which are unknown although the forms
exist to-day. The statement that one dialect had the closest rela-
tions with Cree-Montagnais and another with Shawnee, is wrong.
Zeisberger's inadequate phonetics were wrongly interpreted. It is
clear that both Delaware and Munsee are closely related and, though
they can not be easily classed with any other large group, it is clear
that they approximate the Ojibwa group in important points, and
290a
'290b ADDENDUM
Ottawa in particular. Phonetically, however, in some points they
approximate more closely Peoria and other languages belonging to
the same group. (Zeisberger does not distinguish -k' [Fox -^1 and
-Jcvf^ [Fox -gvf] : both are written -i; the case of -mw^, which remains
in Munsee but undergoes certain changes in Delaware, is somewhat
similar.) From Doctor Sapir's notes it would seem that the Dela-
ware of Oklahoma, and that of Canada (Smoothtown) differ in certain
points.
i ^-
■ • t^
I
■
I
-fl
■
.. J
m
INDEX
Page
Abalone shell, ornaments of 143
Abnaki language—
description .... 280, 283, 284, 285, 286-287, 289, 290
examples in comparison with—
Cree 238,239
Delaware 238, 290
Fox 238,230
liicmac 238
NaUck 290
OjibwB 238
Passamaquoddy 230
Peoria 238.239
Shawnee 238,239
Stockbridge 238,290
pronunciation 228
relationships 289
Abnaki tbibe—
linguistic investigations among 225
reference to 290
AccoMPANTmo PAPEBs, noto on 21
AcKEBVAN, Thomas, reference to 37
AcoMA Pueblo, references to 158, 159-160
Adamsville, Abb., references to 34-35, 112
AOlONiaTBATIYE REPOBT 9-22
Adobe coNSTBUcnoN, description of 80
Agave fibeb, use of 148
Age OP Casa Grande, references to .33, 105
Agua Fru. Valley, ruins in 215-216,218
AiNSWORTH'S RANCH—
reference to 210
ruins on 211
Aeutchin, andent Pima settlement > 36
Alarcon, route of. 186,208
Alaska-Yukon-Paopic Exposition, refer-
ence to 101
Aloonkin language—
conjunctive mode 272
description 201-282,264-269
examples in comparison with—
Cheyenne 233
Cree 243,244,
245, 250, 251, 252, 259, 260, 261 , 262, 272
Cree-Montagnais 259
Detoware 243,244,261
Fox . . . 244, 245, 252, 259, 260. 261, 262, 271, 272
Kickapoo 259
Menominee 243,
244. 245, 250, 251, 252, 259. 2f.l , 262, 271
Micmac 272
Montagnais 272
NaUck 233,243,244,250,251,271,273
OJlbwB 243,244,
245, 250, 251, 252, 261, 262, 271, 272, 273
Ottawa 233 ,
245, 250, 251, 252, 259, 260, 261, 262, 271
Page
Algonkin language— Continued.
examples in comparison with— continued.
Passamaquoddy 243, 273
Peoria 233,246,
250, 251, 252, 260, 261, 262, 271, 272, 273
Potawatomi 259,262,271
Sauk 259
Shawnee 243,244,245,
251,252,256,259,261,262,271,272,273
indicative mode 273
pronunciation 226-228
relaUonships 238, 24^, 289, 290a
subjunctive mode 260
Algonqihan languages—
pronunciation 226-228
summary of linguistic investigations. . . 225-226
Algonquian tribes, llng'iistic classification-
memoir on 22. 221
linguistic mi^or divisions 220
Alibamu, researches among 12
American Museum op Natural History,
archeologic explorations by 18
Ancients, The, reference to 42
SeefiUo Hohokam, Inhabitants.
Animal eptigies, clay (Casa Grande) 134-135
Anticosti Island, reference to 290
Antiquities op United States, preservation
of. 10, 17-18
Antonio Azul, Pima chief 34
Ants, in Pima legend 49.60
Anza, Lieut. Col. Juan Bautista de, visit
to Casa Grande 57
Apache—
baskets used by 147
in Pima flood legend 51
pictographs '. 197, 201
references to ^, 44, 56, 58, 61, 70, 195, 217
Arapaho language-
oonsonantic clusters 284
description 234-237
pronunciation 226-227
reference to 225
relationships 22,229,237,280,289,290a
See also Atsina, Gros Ventre, Northern Arap-
aho.
Archeology in relation to ethnology 42
Architecture —
of Casa Grande 72-74, 154-155
of Giki-Salt Compounds 150-152, 156
Arizona—
age of ruins 150
antiquities 17
archeolc^ic work in. 13, 18
as cultural center 157
291
292
INDEX
• Page
Abizona— Coottnaed.
(Central) dual composition of rains 161
clifl^lwellings 151
collections fh>m 30
fetish from 122
national monqpents 18
(Northern) dual composition of ruins 151
fabrics firom ruins 148
pottery 137, 139
shell work 144
researches in 0
shells among aborigines 143
(Southern) cliff-houses 151
lacking in modem pueblos 152
pictographs 214
pottery 139
(Western) early explorations in 186
pictographs 214
Akbow-hxads (Casa Grande) 130
Absow-shait polishers (Casa Orande) 126
Attacapa, researches among 12
Atsina, linguistic classification of. 234
8u ai»o Oros Ventre.
AWATOBI—
disposal of dead 117,118
pottery 139,141,156
AXB8, moNE (CTasa Orande) 123>124
ArrEC—
references to 54, 186
traditional association with Casa Orande. 33
Set aUo Ifexico (andent inhabitants).
Aztec Pass—
fortbek)w 210-211
origin of name 208
references to 206,207,211
road through 204
Baat, legendary Pima maiden 52
Baca Grant, reference to 208
Baker's ranch house, ruins near 201-208
Balls, stone, from Casa Orande 93-94, 131
Bancroft—
cited as an authority 45
on Sedelmair's account of Casa Orande. . . 56
Bandeuer—
cited as to Coronado expedition 54
description of Casa Orande 09-71
on Pima 69-72,152
Pima legend from 45
Banohart ranch, reference to 201
Baraqa, Bishop—
OJ ibwa modes ftom 262-263
references to 227,239
Bartlett, John Russell, account of Casa
Orande 66-^,88
Basketry—
Casa Grande 147
OilapSalt region 156
Pima 147
Quahatika 140
Batre mineral claim, fort near 215-216
Batre, Mr. , acknowledgment to 216
Beads, stone (Casa Orande) 131
Benham collection of Gila Valley antiqui-
ties 119
Bernal, Capt. Crist6bal H., reference to. . 54
BBXAR archtves, reference to 16
Page
Bio BuBBO Canton, reference to 209
Bill Williams Rfveb, references to... 186,208,209
Bilozi, raaearches among 12
BiBD, idol in form of (Casa Orande) 121
BnTEB Man, The, in Pima legend 43-44,60-61
Black Falls buin, reference to 157
Blacktoot lanouaqe—
cluster «f In 234
- referenoeto 186,225
relationships 22, 229-232,235,237,289
Black's Canton, cliff-house at mouth of.. .197-196
Black's bancr, references to 196, 196, 197
Blackwateb, Abb.—
pictographs near 148
references to 37,02,115
Bloods, linguistic affinities of 229
Boas, Db. Fbanz, work of 15
Bolton, Pbof. Hbbbebt E., work of 16-17
Bone implements. 8te Imptements.
Bbasseub de Boubboubo, cited as to Casa
Orande 53
Bbotton, Db. D. O. , on work of Zeisberger. . 275
Bbownb, J. Ross, work of, cited 53,62
BuBiALS. See Mortuary eostoms.
BubboCbbbk, Abb., reference to 209
BuzEABD, in Pima legend 49,50,52
Cabobca, reference to 218
Cactus, OUNT, in Pima legend 44,52,61
Caddoan tbibbs, history of 17
C AJUENCHE , reference to 209
C AKCBIKEL LANGUAGE, manuscrfpts in 12
Cauche, description of 82
Caupobnla tbibbs, reference to 102
Camp Hualapai, references to 186,206,211
Cane aoABETTES. Su Cigarettes.
Cane GAME,4n Pima legend 52
Canton db Chbllt—
difl-houses 219
pottery 139
Canyon Diablo, ruins In 13
Cape Bbbton, reference to 290
Cablislb (Pa.) Indian School, linguistic
Investigations at 225
Cabnbqib Instittttion op Wasrinoton,
acknowledgment to 239
Cabson, Krr, reference to 62
Cabtieb, reference to 290
Casa Blanca, reference to 71
Casa Gbande, Abb.—
application of name 79-80,87
memoir on 25
origin of name 33
Casa Gbande Mountains, Abb.—
pictographs found In 148
reference to 36
Casa Gbande Station, Abb. , reference to. . . 72
Casa Montezuma, designation of Casa
Grande 33,34
See alto Montecuma.
Casab Gbandes (Chihuahua)—
pottery 137,142,156
reference to 54
type 151
Casas Gbandes of the Gila 153
CASTAftEDA DE Nageba, Pedbo DE, refer-
ences to 63,117
INDEX
293
PftgO
CATALDf A Mountains, Abo. , reference to 36
Cavate—
dwellings, types of 188,219
use of term 103, 194
Cedab, used At Casa OiBnde 146
Central Alqonquian lanotjaoes—
divisions , 233
examples in oomparisdn with—
Cheyenne * 233
Cree 333,239,245
Menominee 249,251
OJlbwa 245
Potawatomi 245
referonoeto 290
relationship with Micmac 283
Cebemoniax. rooms—
reference to 142
types of 150
See aUo Kihtis, Kiva.
Chaco Canton, N. Mex., declared national
monument 18
Charcoal, magic power of 47,52
Chaves Pass, turquoise &x)g fkom 131, 144
Cherokee Nation, researches in 12-13
Chevlon Fork, reference to 220
Chevlon ruin, reference to 139
Chetenne on'isiON of Algonquian languages,
relationships of 229,289
Chetenne lanouaob—
oonsonantic clusters 284
description 232-234
inanimate plural of nouns 274
pronunciation 226
reference to 225
relationships 22,237,274,280,286
See alto Northern Cheyenne.
Chichilticalu , references to 53, 54
CHiHUAHUA,MKZioo,8hel]samongaborigines. 143
See aUo Casas Orandes (Chihuahua).
CmNo Valley.. Arb.—
early migration into 218
references to 196,204,215
ruins 201,216
CnrnMACHA, researches among 12
Choctaw, reference to 12
Cibola, references to 117,220
See also ZufU.
Cigarettes, cane (Casa Grande).... 135,142-143
Ci-HO, legendary Pima hero 45,71
CniAS , home of. 220
Civ AN, application of term 46
Cf vanavAaki, Pima name for Casa Grande. . . 33, 43
Ci-v A-nO, Pima legendary chief. 71
See alto Sf-va-no.
Ci-va-n6-qi, name applied to Casa Grande. . . 71
Clan-house 1, Casa Grande—
burial found in 117,127,139
description 106-110
excavation and repair : . 41-42
"seat" excavated in 46
Clayton, J. B., work of 14,18
Clbab Cbebk, caves on 188
CLDT-DWELLINQft—
decorated fabrics fh>m 148
in Colorado 151
in Sierra Madre, Mexico 151
in upper Verde region 188, 194
•Pago
CuFF-DWELUNOS— Continued .
in Verde Valley 198
plctographs in 197
pottery 137,138,139,141
resemblances among 151
use of term ^ 117,193
CocouABicoFA, feLronoe to 58
Collections—
Casa Grande 20,118-121
Fewkes 121,161-179
summary as to. .'. 20-21
COLOBADO—
ancient cultural center 1 57
antiquities 17
ruins-
age of. 150
diff-dweUings 151
pottery 137,139,140
See alto Little Colorado.
Colorado River tribes—
reference to 217
relationships 220
Compounds, Casa Grande—
age 105
ancient inhabitants 152
Compound A—
description 3S-W
excavation 37-39
Compound B—
description 95-102
excavation and repair 40-4
Compound C—
description 102-103
excavation and repair 42
Compound D—
description 104-105
excavation and repair 42
Compounds E and F— description 106
relation to pueblos 150-160
Conch shells, trumpets of (Casa Grande). 144-145
Conjunctive mode-
Algonkin 272
Arapaho 236
Cree 272
Fox 234,253,260,261,265,271,272,279,288
Micmac 245,260,272,279,285,287-288
Natick 272
OJlbwa 268,27^
Peoria. 234,245,260,265,268,270,271,272,279,288
Shawnee 234,245,255,265,271,272,279
Conjunctives, Indefinite passive (Algon-
quian) 279
CONSONANTTC CLUSTERS—
Abnaki 280
Arapaho 235, 236
Cheyenne 232-233,234, 236
Cree 231,238,246
Delaware 279,290b
due to elimination of vowels 283
Eastern Algonquian 236,246,284
Fox 249,283
linguistic classification based on 226
Malecite 2^,291-282,283
Menominee 249,280-281
Micmac 280-281,283
Munsee 890a
Natick 234
294
INDEX
Page
CoNSONANtic cLUsms— Continued.
Northern Blackfoot 230-231
Passamaquoddy 259,280,282
Penobscot 280,282-283
Piegan 229-230,231,236
various Algonqulan languages 274
CoNaTRUcnoN or Casa Qsande, method of. . 82, 95
See alto Walls.
CoNUSSHELL, omaments of 145
C*ooKE, Lieut. Col., reference to 05
CoppEB, specimens found In Southwestern
ruins 98, 148
CORONADO EXPBDmoN, reference to 53,54
CoRTEZ, Don lost—
cited as to Tontos 217
on Colorado River tribes 209
Cotton (Casa Grande), references to 148,156
Cottonwood, Ariz., reference to 196
CoUES, Eluott, work by, cited 57
Coyote, the, in Pima legend 44
CozzENS, work by, cited 62, 66
Creation LEGEND, Pima 44,49,61
Cree language—
cluster •< in 234
conjunctive mode 272
consonantic clusters 231, 283
description 238-247
examples from Horden 248
examples in comparison with—
Abnaki 279,283,284
Algonkin 250,
251, 252, 2Q0, 261, 262, 265, 267, 272
Cheyenne 233, 286
Delaware 250, 251 ,
2Q6, 250, 260-261, 265, 267, 269.
273, 274, 275, 278, 279, 284, 286
Eastern Algonquian 257,269
Fox 235,
247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 256.
258, 250, 260-261 , 262, 263, 265,
267, 209, 271, 272, 273, 274, 275,
278, 279, 280, 283, 284, 286, 288
Klckapoo 248,250.267
Maledte 274,279,284
Menominee 249,250,251,252,
250, 261, 262, 267, 271, 273, 279, 283, 284, 286
Mknnac 256,272,284,288
Minsl 274
Montagnais 247,
248, 259, 261, 267, 272, 278, ^, 286
Natick 250,
251, 265, 273, 274. 275, 279. 283. 284, 286
OJlbwa 249,250,251,
252, 256, 257, 258. 261. 262, 263. 265, 267, 268
2G0, 271 , 272, 274, 275, 278, 279, 283, 284, 286
OtUwa 248,250,251,261,262,267
Passamaquoddy 267.283,284,286
Penobscot 267,279,283,284
Peoria.... 250.251,252.256.261.262,265,267,
269. 271 , 272, 274, 275, 278, 279, 283, 284. 288
Potawatomi 262
Sauk 248,250,267,271,288
Scaticook 279
Shawnee 251,
252,256,257.258.261.262,265.267,268,
269, 271, 272,274.278,279.283.284.286
Stockbridge 284,290
Page
Crer languaor— ContlDued.
independent mode 247,248,268.368
Indicative mode 273
relatkmahipB 232
subjunctive mode 247, 248. 200, 365. 360, 271
See aito Cree-lContagnais, East Main Cree,
Fort Totten Cree, Moom Cree, Rupert's
House Cree.
Crbe-Montagnau lanouaoe—
examples in comparison with—
Algonkin 350
Delaware 273,277,280
Eastern Algonquian 286.287,288
Fox 250,273,277,278
Kickapoo 250
Menominee 250,273,277,278
Micmac 273
Natick 280,280
Ojibwa 250,260,273,277,280,287
Ottawa 259
Passamaquoddy 277
Peoria 260
Potawatomi 250
Sauk 299
Shawnee 259.287
independent mode 259
relationships 244,250.252. 288, 289,290a
BUppositive mode 273
See aUo Cree, Montagnais.
Cremation. 5m Mortuary customs.
Crows, in Pima flood legend 52
Cruzate, Don Doionqo Jironza Pbtriz de,
reference to 54
Cuabajai, reference to ,209
CucHANs, referenceto 217
Culturx centers, ancient, in Southwest . . 157
CusHTNG, Frank HAicaTON—
head of Hemenway Southwestern expedi-
tion 119
on Irrigatloo (Salt River Valley) 114-115
referenoeato 46,70,71,112
of. 72
Delawarb language—
consonantic dusters 283
description 228, 275-280,290a, 290b
' examples in comparison with—
Abnaki 238,284
Algonkin 243,244,361,266,287,268,278
Cheyenne 386
Cree 238,239,243,244,251,266,
261,266,267,269,273,274.275,284,286
Cree-Montagnais 273
Eastern Algonquian... 267,360,270.287,288
Fox 238,
239, 243, 244. 260. 251 ,256, 257, 259. 260-261 ,
265, 267, 270, 273, 274, 275, 283, 284.287, 290
Kickapoo 259, 267
Malecite 239,269,283
Menominee 239,
243,244,250,251,257,261,267.270,273
Micmac 238,256,273.284,288
Minsl 239.274
Montagnais 250,261,267,260,286
Natick 239,
243. 244. 250. 265, 260, 273, 274. 284, 286, 288
Ojibwa 238,239.243,244.256,257,261,
265, 267, 268, 269, 270, 273, 275, 284, 286, 288
INDEX
296
Pase
Delawakb languaob— Cdntinned.
escamptos In oompftriaon with— ConUnoed.
OtUwa. 261,265,267,268,273
PaasBinaqooddy 243,267,286,287
Penobocot 267, 260
Peoria 238,
239,256,257,261,265,267,268,270,275,284
Potawatomi 261,268,273
Sauk 250,267
Shawnee 238,230,243.244,
256,267,261,265,267,274,283,284.287,288
Stockbridge 238,284,290
Turtle Mountain (OJibwa dialect).. 230
fonnatlon of negative verb 274
independent mode 231,260-261,268,287
indicative mode 273
reference to 225
relatioxuhlpe 231,238,244,280
subjunctive mode 246,260,265,268
Buppoedtive mode 273
Del Rio—
references to 202,203,204
ruinanear 201
DKMONSTBAnVE PRONOUNS, AlOONQUIAN ... 232
DiscovxBT or Casa Ohande 54
Disks fbom Casa Giuin>B—
pottery, perforated 136
■tone 120>130,131
District of Coluxbia, ooUections from 20. 21
Doo,THE,in Pimalegend 61
DoLOBBS Mission, reference to 54
Doniphan's expedition, reference to 68
Doorways and windows (Caea Grande). 81, 85-86
Dragoon Fork, application of name 100
Su aUo Sycamore Canyon.
Dreams, Pimanotionof 50
Drew's ranch—
reference to 210
ruins on 211
Drinker, The, in Pima legend 43-44, 61
Eagle burlal (Casa Grande), references to . 03, 110
Eagle Mountain, Cal., references to 36, 47
Eagle, THE, in Pima legends 45,52
Eab shell, use as ornaments 143
Eabth Doctob in Pima legend 40,50
Eastern Aloonquian languages—
close connection among 258
consonantic clusters 234,238,246,284
examples in comparison with—
Cheyenne 233,286
Cree 233,230,257,280
Cree-Montagnais 286,287,288
Delaware 257.270,278,280,287,288
Fox 257,261,270,270-280,287,288
Malecite 260
Menominee 257,270
Natick 233.286,288
OJibwa 257,270,287,288
Passamaqnoddy., 257
Penobscot 269
Peoria 257,270
Piegan 261
Shawnee 257,261,270,270-280,287,288
independent mode 231
relationships 231,232,275,288,280
Page
£ astxrn-Cxntbal Aloonquun languages,
relationships of 22, 220, 232,237-238,280
East Main Crbb dlalbct—
examples in comparison with—
Potowatoml 268
Menominee 260
forms. 245,246,252
subjunctive mode 260
East Mesa (Hon), reference to 102
Editorial work of Bureau, summary of 10
Edwards—
on language of Stockbridge 284,200
reference to. 238
EiXARCH, ToMls, reference to 57
Euot, John, Natick forms fnxa 272-273
El Morro, N. Mez., National Monument. . . 18
El Siba, ancient Pima Chief 55
EXORT, Col. WILUAM H.—
on Casa Grande 63-64
work by 44
Enyironmbnt, infloenoe on hab itations 1 87
EscALANTE RUINS, references to 112.114
Escalante, Sergeant Bautista de, refer-
ence to 55
E8PEIO, Antonio DE, reference to 186
Ethnology in relation to ardieology, refer-
ence to.^ 42
Excavation or Casa Grande, account of. 13, 37-42
Fabrics (Casa Grande), description of. . . . 147-148
Fbatbeb-plaited Doctob (Ctvan), in Pima
legend 51 , 52
Feathers (Casa Grande), garments of. 148
Fetishes (Casa Grande) 121, 145
Fewkes, Dr. J. Walter—
bulletin by 17
collection made by (Casa Grande) 20,
121.161-170
memoirs by 23,181
worl|of. 13,17,21-22
Finck , F . N . , reference to 226
First persons plural, reference to 226
Fishes, in Pima flood legend 50
Flagstapf, .\riz., references to 186, 104, 195
Flood legend, I*ima 49-52
Floors or Casa Grande, construction of. . . 80,
83,84-85
Florence, Ariz.—
pictographs in vicinity 148-140
references to 33, 34, 72, 05, 114
Florida, researches in 0
Fly, THE, in Pimalegend 52
Font, Father Pedro—
account of Casa Grande. . . 42, 4»-44, 58-4$l, 88, 01
references to 45,63
Uturituc described by 37
visit to Casa Grande 57
Font's room (Casa Grande) 01,06, 116
Fort, comparison with trinckera 218
Fort George Indians, dialect of 247
Fort Totten Cree dialect—
discussion of 241-247
examples in comparison with—
Algonkin 265
Fox 257,267,278
OJibwa 257,267,278
Ottawa 265
296
INDEX
Pag«
FOBT TOTTUf CftBI DULBCT--CODtini]ed.
Independent mode 360,366
investigation of 226
pronunciation 227
reference to 248
subj unct i ve mode 262
Fox LANGVAQE—
certain forms 239
conjunctive mode 234, 266, 271, 272, 279, 288
consonantic clusters 249
description 263-266,258-261
examples in comparison with—
AbnakL 238,230,279,283,284,286,287
Algonkin 244,
246, 251, 252, 361, 362, 365, 367, 271-272
Arapaho 236
Cheyenne 233,234
Cree 336,338,239,243,244,246,247,
248, 240, 260, 261, 252, 366, 367, 358, 361,
363, 363, 265, 367, 369, 271, 272, 273, 274,
275, 278, 279, 280, 283, 284, 286, 287, 288
Cree-Montagnais 273,277,278
DeUware.... 238, 239, 343, 3«4,
250, 251, 256, 257, 260-361, 366, 367, 270,
273, 274, 276, 277, 278-279, 283, 284, 287
Eastern Algonqoian 267,
258,361,370,387,388
Eastern-Central Algonquian 337
Fort Totten Cree 358,267,278
Kickapoo 348,358,367,373
ICalecite 338,339,274,283,284
Menominee 238,239,243,
244, 346, 249, 350, 351, 257, 361, 362, 367,
270, 371, 373, 273, 277, 278, 279, 283, 284
liicmac 238,
245,249,356,373,273,279,283,284,288
Minsi 239,274
Montagnals 347,348,361,367,273,279
MooseCree 363
Natick 338,339,244,250;
251, 266, 273, 274, 275, 27»-279, 283, 284
OJibwa 235,
238, 239, 244, 245, 249, 251, 256, 357, 358,
361, 363, 363, 366, 367, 368, 369, 270, ri,
272, 274, 276, 277, 278, 379, 383, 284, 286
Ottawa 248,261,261,363,266,267
Fassamaquoddy 239,
267, 258, 277, 283, 284, 285, 286, 287
Penobscot 238,267,383,2^,285
Peoria 238,239,244,345,351,
252, 256, 257, 261, 362, 265, 267, 369, 370,
271, 272, 274, 276, 278, 279, 283, 284, 288
Piegan '. 261
Potawatomi 262
Sauk 248,258,267,272,288
Scaticook 279
Shawnee 238, 239, 245, 251, 252, 256, 257,
258, 261, 262, 265, 267, 260, 270, 271, 272,
274, 278, 279, 280, 283, 284, 286, 287, 288
Stockbridge 238,284
Turtle Mountain (OJibwa dialect) ... 239
independent mode 247,
248, 267-268, 271, 287, 289
indicative mode 273
noun endings, nominative singular 272
participial mode 245,265,271
PagB
Fox LANOUAOS-ContlnOSd.
possessive pronouns 266
pronunciation 227
relationships 2S1,
232, 238, 244, 250, 262, 280, 288, 289
subjunctive mode 246, 247, 348, 365, 360, 272
subjunctive-participial mode 245
supi^tive mode 378
See also Kickapoo, Sauk.
Fox TBIBB (Iowa), linguistic investigations
among 225
Fbachtbkbxbo, Db. Leo J., work of 15
Fboo Tanks, Abb., forts near 215-216
QABCtS, Fathxb Fbamcisco—
account of Casa Grande 57^68
references to 87,63,180
route 207
QAsrt Peninsula, refisrenoe to 290
Oatschxt, Db. Albebt Samitbi^—
death 21
1 ingulstic work 12
Micmac forms fW>m 285,387-388
on Ottawa forms 361,368,366
on Peoria forms 339,345,300,370,371
on relationship of OJibwa, Ottawa, Pota-
watomi 362
on Shawnee fbrms 338,354
Fassamaquoddy forms ftom 380,383,386
Potawatomi form (h>m 363
references to 338,357,387
Qeoboian Bat, reflbrenoe to 290
QiLA Cbossino, reference to 45
OiLA RlYEB—
growth of reeds along 142, 147
inPimalegend 45
plumed serpent symbolic of 113, 142
Oila-Salt beoion—
cremation practised in 220
early inhabitants.. 44,61-62,94,102,115,166,218
geographic limit of compounds 151
"great houses" described 166
pottery 137,141
reservoirs 112,115
shell carvings fh>m 145
summary of conclusions as to 153-160
See oUo Salt River Valley, and titles re-
lating to Casa Grande.
Gila Valley, antiquities of, bulletin on 17
Gill, De Lancet, work of 21
Gill, W. H., collection made by 21
Glottal stop (Abafabo) 235
Gloveb, C. C. , aclmowledgment to 20
Gbaham, Maj. L. P., reference to 65
Gband Canton or theColobado, reference
to 167
Gbanite Cbeek,Abiz.—
reference to 200
ruins along 203-204, 215,218
Gbapevine Canton, rains in 13
Gbinding-stones (Casa Grande) 126-127
5r«a2«o Disks, Slabs.
Gbossman, Capt. F. E., on Casa Grande 44-
45,61-62
Gbos Ventbe lanouaoe, classifleation
of 234,235,290B
INDEX
297
Pbco
OuASATAS IfxflsioK, nfennce to. <6
QvntRAB, £uBEBio, as a translator 56,57
OuBUEY, Joseph G., appointment and work
of 19
HAUons, omamentB of. 143
Hammbrs, stokx (Casa Obande) 124-125
Handbook op Amebican Indiak Lan-
OUAOBS, cited as to Fox 227
Handbook op Amebican Indians—
part 1 iBBued 10
preparation : 10. 11, 1»-14. 16, 16, 19
reference to 226
Hand stones (Casa Obande) 126
Hano —
legends 49
pottery 159
Habtshobne, Hugh, work of . . ; 37
HasInai , deecriptlon of 17
Hassatampa Cbeek , Abiz. , ruins on 215, 218
Havasupai—
ancestors 185, 216
relations with Hopi 219
Hawaiian bibuoobapht, preparation of 11-12
HAWKs,in Pimalegend 52
Hazbinwuqti, legendary Hopi being 61
Hell Canton, hiins in 200
Hembnway, Mbs., eflorts in behalf of Casa
Qrande 7?
Hbmenwat Southwestebn Expedition,
collection of 119
Hendlet, H. W., models made by 101
Hewett, Edoab L., bulletin by 17
Hewitt, J. N. B., work of. 13-14
HiNA, Sala, Pima potter 140
HiNTON, RiCHABD J.—
on Casa Grande 53,68-60
on ruin near mouth of Granite Creek 204
references to 201,203
HiSTOBY OP Casa Gbande—
detailed accounts 54-81
general discussion 53-64
reference to 33
HODOE, F. W.—
acknowledgment to 53
on "accompanying papers" 21-22
work of. 11,14,19
HoDOE, H. C, on ancient irrigation ditch. . . 114
Hoes, stone (Casa Gbande) 131-132
HoiPMAN, Waltee J. , work of, cited 186
HOHOKAM—
application of tenn 153
references to 42,117
See alao Gila-Salt region (early Inhabi-
tants).
Ho-BO-QdM, name applied to Pima's ances-
tors 71
See also Hohokam.
HoK, legendary Pima monster 4^-49,52
Holmes, W. H., work of 10
HoMOLom, early hihabitants of. 218
HoNANKi, description of. 195*197
Hopi—
anoeston 151,154,159,216
axes used by 124
bird-calls 146
oeremonial rooms 150
Pace
Hopi— Continoed.
cigarettes 143
contents of shrine 101
country of 56
cult of plumed serpent 1 42
dwelUngs 219
East Mesa 192
foot race 131
Horn clan 159
legends 46, 49, 15r, 158, 159
medicine stones 130
mortuary customs 117,118
mythologic monster of. 48
objects deposited in shrines 135
Patki clans 218
pits used as ovens 99
pottery 137,139,140,156,158-160
rattles 146
references to 58,113,144,207
relations with Havasupai 219
Yajra (fire priests) 47
See alto Moqui.
Hobden, J.—
on Cree forms 231,243,244,246,246,248
references to 239,241,252,278
HoBN CLAN (Hon), reference to 159
Hough, Db. Walteb, bulletin by 17
HouMA, researches among 12
House op Montezuma, designation of Casa
Grande 33
See aUo Montesoma.
HbduCka, Db. AlxA, work of 15-16
Hughes, Lieut. John T., on Casa Grande. . . 68
Human bbmains. See Mortuary customs
(burials).
Humboldt, Fbiedbich H. Alezandeb de.
cited as to Casa Grande 53
Hummingbibd, in Pima legend 47,48,50
Idaho, aroheologlo ezploratioDs in 18
Idols—
Casa Grande 101,121-122
GUapSalt region 156
Illustbation wobk op Bubeau, summary. 21
Implements pound at Casa Gbande—
bone 145-146
problematical 125, 129
stone 122,131
wooden 146-147
Independent mode (Algonquian)—
Abnaki 286-287
Algbnkin 231,233,262,264,265,266,267
Arapaho 236
ClieyBnne 233
Cree 231,247-248,258,259-260,268
Cree-Montagnais 250
Delaware 260-261,268,287
Eastern Algonquian 231,233
Eastern-Central Algonquian 237-238
Fort Totten Cree 241-245,260,265
Fox 231,
247, 248, 253, 258, 259-260, 267-268, 271, 287, 289
Klckapoo 269,289
Menominee 231,250-251,259,266,268
Montagnais 247,248,259-260
l^atick 233,234,265,268,269
Northern Blackfoot 231
298
INDEX
Pace
INDSPEKBENT MODE (Algonquian)— OoDtd.
OJIbwa 233,
258, 25»-260, 262-203, 266, 266, 267, 268, 271, 286
Ottawa 233,26S-266,267
Paasamaquoddy 231,265,268,285,286,287
Peoria 233, 269, 265, 260, 270, 271
personal pronouns 236
Piegan 231,250
Potawatomi 265,267
Sauk 250,289
Shawnee 231,254,268,286,280
See alio Indicative mode.
INDUN Hnx, forta at 216,218
iNnuN iiiasioNS, article on 15
Indian tanks, reference to 112
Indicative mode (Algonqulan)—
Cheyenne 234
Cpoe 230,240,247,273
Delaware 273, 276-278
Maleclte 260
Mlonac 260,273
Natick 272-273
OJIbwa 247,273
Penobscot 209
Peoria 250,273
various languages 273
See also Independent mode.
Indo-E uropean LANOUAOS8, reference to . . . 290
Inhabitants—
Casa Grande 04, 156
Upper Verde- Walnut Creek region 165, 186
See aUo Migrations, Pima.
iNscsipnoN Rock, N. Hex., declared na-
tional monument 18
Instrumental particles—
Arapaho ^ 236
reference to 226
Interior Department, part in arcbeologic
explorations 18
Ironwood, used at Casa Orande 146, 147
IroquiaK tribes—
habitat 290
researches among 14
Irrigation, anhent—
effect onsoil 160
in Casa Orande region 36-37,
51,55,57, (W. 103, 113-115
in Walnut Creek Valley 214,218
Ives, Lieut. J. C, reference to 208, 209
Jacales, references to 187, 209
Jamestown ExpoarrioN, Smithsonian ex-
hibit at 10
Jasper, ornament or (Casa Orande) 131
Jemex Plateau, antiquities of, bulletin on . . 17
Jerome, Arb., references to 194, 195
Jerome Junchon, Ariz., references to 203,204
Johnson's ranch, reference to 210
Johnston, Capt. A. R., account of Casa
Orande 44,64-65
Jones, Dr. Wiluam—
acknowledgment to 225
Kickapoo texts 258
on Fox, Sauk, Kickapoo, OJibwa, forms. 239
on relationship of OJibwa, Ottawa, Pota-
watomi 2i'i2
Page
Jones, Dr. Woxum— Contlnaed.
references to 227,259
reference to analysis of Algonqulan 236
Jordan's ranch, ruins at and near.. . . 195, 196-199
Juniper Mountains, Ariz., rafBranoe to 204
Kamaltkak. 5m Thin Leather.
Keam collection, pottery in 139
Kearnt, General, expedition of. 63
Keller, Father Ionaoo, visit to Casa
Orande 66-^7
KsRESAN clans, reference to 158
Keresan pottery, references to 141, 150
Kickapoo Indians (of Oklahoma), linguistic
investigations among 225
Kickapoo lanouaob—
certain forms in 230
description 252-255,258-261,272
Independent mode 280
pronunciation 227
relationships '238.244.251,252,280
See alto Fox, Sauk.
KiCKiNQ-BALL oams, in Pima legend 52
KiHVS, references to 150,180
KiHUTOAC, reference to 51
Kino, Father Eusbbio Francisco—
account of.... 56
name Casa Grande given by 33
TeierenoeBto 46.55.82,01,220
visits to Casa Grande 54
KiNTiEL ruin, reference to 158
KlVA—
application of term 150
descalptkm... 151,158
examples in Verde ruins 180
KiWRSS (Zul^), application of term 150
Kroeber, Dr. A. L.—
acknowledgment to 225
on Arapaho language 235
on Cheyenne prefix 236
KUEHNE. See Kino.
Kwahadt. See Qnahatika
Labrador coast, relBranoe to 290
Laoombe—
on Cro3 forms 243.246,247.248.250,252.290
references to 230. i41
Lamar papers, reference to 16
Land, in Pima creation legend 40
League op the Iroquois, researches relative
to 14
Leart, Miss Ella, work of 20
Ledoe-ruins, meaning of term 196
Legends, Pima 42-52
Lemoine—
Algonkin modes from 282,204
on Montagnais norms 248
refnence to 227
work of, cited 247
Le6n, Dr. Nicolas, acknowlcdinnent to 55
Leroux , cited as to tribal rclat kmsh ip 216
Letrado, murder of 220
Library or Bureau, summary as to 20
Limestone Butte ruin, description of — 204-200
/
INDEX
299
Page
LtRLB COLOHADO BEOIOK—
ancient inliabitants 151, 157, 158, 218
antlqoities 13,17
cremation not pract ised In 117
pueblos 163, 220
ruins-
bird fetishes from 121
. ceremonial rooms 150
cigarettes from 143
copper bells from 148
pottery from 134,159
shell carvings from 144
Ldeabd, the, in Pima legend 46
Long consonants—
Delaware, Munsee 290a
Plegan 229-fflO
Los MuvBTos RUINS, reference to 1 14-1 15
Louisiana, researches in 9. 12
Louse, the, in Pima creation legend 49
LowiE, Dr. Robert H.—
acknowledgment to 225
on Northern Blackfoot 230
Maodalena, Sonora, reference to 218
Maqic, in Pima flood legends 45-52
Maillard , L' A BBE, work on Micmac 269
Malecite language—
description.... 280.281-282.283.284.285.287.289
examples in comparison with—
Cree 238.239.289.274,279
Delaware 239.209.278,279
Eastern Algonqutan 269
Fox 238.239.274
Micmac 269
Montagnais 269.279
Natick 238.239.269,274
Ojibwa 239.269,279
Penobscot 269,279
Peoria 289
indicative mode 269
llALEcrrE TRIBE, reference to 290
Man-Fox, in Pima legend 47
Mange, Lieut. Juan Mateo—
account of CasaOrande 55-56.91
explorations of 54
reference to 46
Manos (Casa Grande), description of 126
Manuscripts, unouistic, catalogue of 18-19
Maricopa-
in Pima flood legend 51
references to 42, 45, 115
relationships 217
Marx's ranch—
reference to 210
ruins below 214-215
ruins on 213-214
Mauls, stone (Casa Grande) 124-125
Mater, Brantz, on Casa Grande 53. 63
Mearns, Edgar A., work by, cited 186
Mechling, W.—
acknowledgment to 225
Malecite consonantic clusters from 281
on relationships among .Vlgonquian Ian-
gtiages 289
Medicine stones (Casa Grande) 130
Page
Menominsr language—
certain fonns 239
consonantic clusters 283
description 249-252
examples in comparison with—
Abnaki 239,283,284
Algonkin 243,
244,245,259,261,262,265,267,271,273
Cree 238,239,243,244,
245.259,261,267,268,269,271,270,284,286
Cree-Montagnais .* 259,
261,262,273,277.278,279,286
Delaware 239,
243.244.257,260-261,267.270.273,279
Eastern Algonquian 257,270
Fox 239,243,244,257,289,261,262,
267,270,271,272,273,277,278,279,283,284
Kickapoo 269,267,272
Micmac 273
Minsi 239
Montagnais 259,261.267,279,286
MooseCree 262
Natick 239,243,244,265,268,273
Ojibwa... 238.239,243.244,245.257,259,261,
262. 267. 268, 269, 270. 271, 272. 279, 283, 284
Ottawa 245,250.261,262,265.267
• Passamaquoddy... 239,243,267.283,284,286
Penobscot 238-239,267,283,284
Peoria 239,244,257,259,261,
262,265,267,270,271,272,273.279,283,284
Potawatomi 250,262.265
Sauk 259,267,272
Shawnee •. 239,243,244,245,257,
259, 261 , 262, 267, 270, 272, 273, 279, 283, 284
Stockbridge 290
Turtle Mountain (Ojibwa dialect) ... 239
independent mode 231,259,265,268
indicative mode 273
noun endings 272
prommclation 227
relationships 231.238.244.289
subjunctive mode 246.269
suppositive mode 273
Menominee tribb—
habitat 290
linguistic investigations among 225
Mentuig, Fatheb Juan, reference to 56
Mesa, Ariz.—
references to 51.55
ruins near 114,116,218
Mesa Verde, Colo.—
antiquities 17
crematfon practised at 117
ledge-houses -^ 194
pottery 139
Mescalprs, description of 116
Metates (Casa Grande) 126, 128
Mexican archives, reference to 16
Mexican Boundary Survey, reference to. . 66
Mexico—
ancient inhabitants 33, 57, 59, 152
copper bells 148
(Eastern) antiquities 13
migration fh)m the north 153
(Northern) architecture 156
300
INDEX
137
122
(fiootikeni) pottoy 156
8e€ «I» Axtocv Chflmafamw SicRm Madre.
Iftua i.&jrGrA6B, relatian to Peoria 230
Mxsnsox, Dm. Tkumajt, manoir by 22,221
MlOUC UUIOCAGlt—
eooJanctiTe mode 245.260.200.272,279
280. 2a. 20-28$. 2S7-29
I tn oonipeiisao witl^—
238
272,273
Gentiml AlconqolBi 249*
Owe 238,245,256,272
DelawBre 238,256,273,279
Fox... 238,245,249,256,260,272,273,279,283
Menominee. 273
Natick 2»,2e».2:3.279
Ojibwa 238,256,260,273
Ottawa. 273
238,245,256,260,272,279
273
238,256,272,279
Stockbridge
indicative mode
MoKL AecMoqid.
Moxsoin, refcrenoe to. .
MOVTAflXAIS LUIOCAOI
dostcr «C
214
289
anbiimctiTe mode 245,269
soppositive mode 273
.. 234
217-249
|ries in oompariaon witlft—
iUpmkin
»l.2<
Cne... 247,218,260,281,267,269,272,279,286
247,248,280^281,267,272,279
yirkapoo 287
Malecite 289,239
Menominee. ... — ......... 261, 267, 279, 286
Naticlc 286
Qiibwa 261,267,269,272,279,286
Ottova. 287
287,286
81ia
267,272
.. 267
287,279
linguistic inTestigations among
referenoeto. 290
MKSBATicnis, KAMLT, in Soutbmt 153,
157-160. 218-219
-^riMwrn PtUAMrmtvm^ iwimwium to 119
MmDELKFr, Cosmos—
coUBction from Caaa Grande 119-120.122
description of Caaa Grande 72,7»-81,86
memoironrepairorCeaa Grande in 1801. 119
monographs by 185
on migration in Verde Valley 15ft
on rasearciies of F. H. Cushing 72
on rains on Verde Rirer 217-218
by 21-22
to 88,188,211
foondby 101
MiNOK AirnQunixs, Ceaa Grande 118
Mnvsi LAXGCAOB, references to 230,274
5m oIm Munaee.
Mission aBcouNS, relerenoe to 16
MiMMwurM Bakd or OjrawA—
dialect 282,263
referenoeto 272
Mississirpi, reseairbcs in 9
liMHL*eui»w Vallkt—
antiquity of man In 15-16
material relating to tribes of 12
MocTKziTiiA, Casa de (Hooso of), lefBiences
to 56^7,58,50
See •Uo Montexoma.
Mohawk TEXTS, cbaracter of. 14
Mohock, found by Oiiate 220
MoisKTTj reference to 234
MOfATK—
in Pimatef^end 51
references to 217
pronunciation .........................
referenoeB to.
Rlalkmships
sobinnctive mode
"soppositir' of the *<snfajonctif "
Set also Cree-Montagnals, Ropert's Hooae
Cree,
Momtbauma—
associated with Cua Grande 43,44
known also as Tcuhn 48
referenceto 46
MoirrBZCMA. Casa dk, referenoes tou 64,65
See aito Owa Montrsmna, Mocteanma.
! MoxTEnniA Cashk. .\biz.~
I declared national monnment 18
I description 194,196
. nfvence to..... 187
• MOMTBICMA, Db. Cablos, reference to 35
■ MoirrBXtncA, Hall op, reference to....' 68
MoRTBZTMA Wbll, nfereooe to 187
Moomrr, James—
on Moiseju. 234
referenoeto 226
work of. 14-15
MooBBHKAD, WAXBBir K., wvk by, cited ... 119
Moose Cbkk malect. references to... 227,239,262
MoQn, references to 51,56>,56
See mUo Hopi.
MoBX ok sbtilkbs in .\rlnna, leleifMce to . 114
MOBNIKO Gbxek, PlmaChieX 33,42,45-48
MOBBD, S. H., collection presnDied by 21
MoBTABS (Casa Gbahdb), description of 123,
127-128
MOBTCABT CCSTOll*—
burial —
among Pima 109,117.118,155
at Oasa Grande 98.106,
10&-110.111.117.127.155
j tn Walnot Credc regton 210,211.220
crematioD—
at Casa Grande 109-110.111,117.155
, distribution of 117,118,230
I Mosaic WORK, n^lorences to 131,144
; MouKD-BuiLOEBs of Mississippi Valley 15-16
INDEX
301
Page
MOUND0 AT Ca8A Obandx, gmenl descrliv
tion 86-«7
Mountain shsxf, idoto lii form of. 121-122
Mount Hops, xeiBienoes to 207,208-209
MOhlxnpfobdt, Eduard, cited as to Casa
Grande M
Munsxb lanouaok—
division of Delaware 276
references to 290,2Wa,290b
8u olto Minsl.
Nacogdoches abchivss, reference to 16
NACra, legendary Pimamaid 46
Nadaillac, work by, cited 62
N ANTicoKE LANOUAOX , reference to 290
Nasal, accretion of ( Ojibwa) 261
Nasal vowxls (Arapaho) 235
Natchez language, inveatigation of. 12-13
NaTICK LANGUAGE—
conjunctive mode 272
Gonsonantic dusters 234,283
description 272-276
examples in comparison with—
Abnaki 279,290
Algonkin 233,243,244,260,266,271
Cheyenne 233,286
Cree... 238,239,260,251,266,260,283,284,286
Cree-Montagnais 280
Delaware 238,239,243,244,
250, 266, 269, 278, 279, 280, 284, 286, 288, 290
Eastern Algonquian 260,288
Fox 238,239,244,250,
251,250.266,279,280,283,284
Malecite 238.239,269,284
Menominee 238,239,
243,244,260,261,265,268
Micmac 238,269,279,284,288
Minsl 239
Montagnais 286
Ojibwa 238,239,243,244,
250, 251, 258, 2Q0, 280, 283, 286, 288
Ottawa. 250,251,266,271
Fassamaquoddy 243
Penobscot 269, 283
Peoria 233,239,
250,251,265,209,271,279
Potawatomi 265,271
Scaticook 279
Shawnee 238,239.243,244.256,265,280
Stockbridge 290
- Turtle Mountain (Ojibwa dialect) ... 239
independent mode 266,268,260
relationships 238,288,289
subjunctive mode 246,260,265
suppositive mode 250
National monuments, establishment of. . . . 18
Nation of the Fork, habitat of 290
Navaho, swastika among 139
Navaho National Monument, Arizona,
dlfl-dwellings of 194,195
Neb6mss (Southebn Pima), references to. . 70-71,
152
Nebraska, early man in 16-16
Negative verb, formation of 261,270,274
Nentoio. See Mentuig.
New Fire Ceremony (Walh) 135
New Mexico—
ancient cultural center.
antiquities
collections from
national monuments. . . .
Page
157
17
20
18
researehesin 9,11
ruins-
age of. 150
cllfl^welUngs 151
pottery 139
shells among aborigines 143
New York, researches in 10,14
Nightingale, Robert C, collection pre-
sented by 20
NBA, Frat Marcos de, references to 53, 54
NoGALEs, reference to 56
Nominal forms (Arapaho) 235
Northern Arafaho, linguistic investiga-
tions among 225
Northern Blackfoot Indians, compared
with Piegan and Bloods 229
Northern Blackfoot language—
consonantic clusters 230-231
texts 226
Northern Cheyenne, linguistic investiga^
tions among 235
Nouns in Algonquian languages—
inanimate plural (Cheyenne, Piegan ) 274
nominative singular endings 272
Oak Creek-
cavate dwellings on 219
ruins at mouth of. 188-193
Obsidian, implements of (Casa Orande) 132
Ofogoula, identical with Ouspie 12
OnawA Indians, linguistic investigations
among 225
OnBWA LANGUAGE—
certain forms in 239
conjunctive mode 272
consonantic clusters 283
description 261-263,265-260
examples in comparison with—
Abnaki 238,239,283,284
Algonkin 243,244,245,260,
251, 252, 269. 261, 262, 271 , 272, 273
Arapaho 235
Central Algonquian 245
Cheyenne. 233,286
Cree 238,
239,243,244,245,247,250,251,
256,257,259,260,261,262,272,
274, 275, 278, 279, 283, 284, 286
Cree-Montagnais 269,273,277,280,287
Delaware 238,
239,243,244,266,257,261,270,273,
274, 275, 278, 279, 280, 284, 286, 288
Eastern Algonquian 257, 270, 287, 288
Fort Totten Cree 268,278
Fox 235,
238,239,244,245,251,266,267,258,
259,260,261,262,270,271,272,273,
274, 275, 2n, 279, 280, 283, 284, 286
Kickapoo 259
Maledte 239,279
302
INDEX
Page
OnBWA LANOUAQB— Continued.
examples in comparlaoo with— Conttnoed.
Menominee 238,239,
343,244,245,250.251,252,257,250,
261. 262, 270, 273, 27», 283, 284
Micmac 238,256,273,284,288
Hlnsf 289,274
Hontagnais 259.260.261,272,279,286
Natick 238,239,243,244,
250,251,273,274-275,280,283,286,288
OtUwa.... 245,250,251,252,250,261,262,271
Passamaquoddy 239,
243,257,258,277,278,283,284
Penobscot : 238-230, 279, 283, 2K4
Peoria 238,230,244,245,
247,250,251,252,256,257,250,261,262,
270, 271, 272, 274, 275, 27»-270, 283, 284
Potawatoml 250,261,262,271
Sauk 259
Shawnee 238,239,243,244,245,
251,256,257,258,259,261,262,270,271,
274, 277, 278, 279, 280, 283, 284, 286, 287
Stockbridge. 238,2b4
Turtle Mountain (Ojlbwa dialect) ... 239
independent mode 258,271,286
indicative mode 273
noun endings 272
participial mode 245,271
pronunciation 227
relationships. 231,232,233,234.238.244,289,290a
subjunctive mode 245,246,280
subjunctive-participial mode 245
See also Mississippi Band.
Oklahoma, researches in 9,12-13
Ol^ATB, Juan dk—
Hopi pueblos found by 220
route of 186, 207
Onondaga texts, character of u
Ontario, Canada, researches in ' 10, 14, 15
OpA, references to 44,61
Opata, reference to 54
Oraibi village, reference to 58
Oregon, researches in 15
Orientation of Casa Grande 73-74, 94, 95
Orosco y Berra, reference to 56
Ortega, reference to 54
Ottawa language—
description 261-262.265-260
examples in comparison with—
Algonkin 233,
245,250,251,252,259,260.261,262,271
Cheyenne 233
Cree 245,250,251,252,261,262
Cree-Montagnais 259
Delaware 2«l
Fox 24S, 259. 261. 262
Kickapoo 248,259
Menominee.... 245,250.251.252.259.261,262
Montagnab 248
Natick 250.251,271
Ojibwa 233,
245.250.251.252.259.261.262.271
Peoria 250.251.252,260.261,262.271 ,
Potawatomi 259.262,271
Sauk 248.259 |
Shawnee 251,259,261,262,271 I
Page
Ottawa lahou age— Continued.
pronunciation 228
relationships 233, 238,280. 2B0a
subjunctive mode 246,260
Ottawa trob—
habitat 290
linguistic investigations among 2SS
OuspiE, identified as Ofogoula 12
Paddles, pottery (Casa Grande) 146-147
Paint grinders (Casa Grande) 126-127
Palatki, description of 196-107
Palatkwabi, references to 35, 142
Papaoo—
origin 152,153
references to 34.36,54.70.113,140
Papaoo de Cojet, Governor, reference to. 37
Parrot, the, in Pima legend 46-17
Parhcipul mode (.\lgonquian)—
Cree 247
Fox 245. 260, 265, 2n. 288
OJlb^-a 245,247,271
Peoria 245
Shawnee 245,265,271
terminations 245
Passamaquoddy ijinguaoe—
agreement with Piegan 231,232
consonantic clusters 2S9, 283
description 280,
281 . 282, 283, 284, 285. 286. 2&7, 280. 290
examples in comparison with—
Abnaki 230,284
Algonkin 243,265,267,273
Cree 238,230,243,244,257,267,284
Delaware 243,267,277,278
Eastern Algonquian 257
Fox 239,257,258,250,257,277,284
Ktekapoo 267
Menominee 238,243,267,284
Mkmac 284
Natick 243
Ojibwa 238,
243, 257, 258, 267, 268, 277, 278, 284
Ottowa 267
Penobscot 238,284
Peoria 230,267,273,277,284
Sauk 267
Shawnee 230,243,
256, 257, 258, 259, 267, 268, 273, 277, 278. 284
independent mode 268
indicative mode 273
pronunciation 228
reforenoe to 225
PAS8AMAQUODDY TRIBE. Tipference to 290
Patki clans (IIopi), references to 142, 218
P.\TKi CLANS (Pima), reference to 35
Patrick, II. R., on ancient irrigation ditches. 114
Patties. THE, reference to 62
Peabody Museum, Harvard University,
reference to 119
Pectunculus SHELL, omameuts of 143-144
Pelote, Nahuatlgame 91
Pendants, stone (Casa Grande ) 131
Pennacook language, classification of 290
Penobscot lanqu.vge -
description 2S0-281.
2S2-2S3, 2!v4, 285, 2S7, 289,209
INDEX
803
Page
Penobscot lanouaoe— Contiiiued.
examples in oomparlaon with—
Abnakl 239
Algonkin 287
Cree 238,267,289,279
Delaware 267,269,279
Eastern Algonquian 269
Fox 239
Kickapoo 267
Malecite 269,279
Menominee 238,287
Montagnais 267,279
Ojibwa 238,267,269,279
Ottawa 267
Passamaquoddy 239,267
Peoria 239,267,269
Sauk 267
Shawnee 239,267
indicative mode 269
Penobscot tbibe, reference to 290
Peobia lanouaok—
certain forms in 239
conjunctive mode. 234,245,260,265,268,279,288
consonantic clusters 283
description 261-262, 165-269,270-272
examples in comparison with—
Abnaki 238,239,283,284
Algonkin 233,250,
^ 251,259,260,261,265,267,268,269,273
Cheyenne 233,234
Cree 238,
239. 243. 244. 245. 247. 251. 252. 256. 257. 261 ,
262, 265, 267, 260, 274, 278, 279, 283, 281, 288
Cree-Montagnais 259
Delaware 238,239,
256,257,261,265^287,268,275,277,279,284
Eastern Algonqulan 257,269
Fox 238,
239. 244. 245. 251. 256. 257. 259. 260. 261. 262,
265. 287, 269, 274, 275, 278, 279, 283, 284, 288
Kkskapoo 269,267
Menominee 238,244,
260, 251, 257, 250, 261, 262, 265, 267, 279, 283
Micmac 238,256,260,279,284,288
Montagnais 278,279
Moose Ciee 262
Natksk 233,
238, 239, 250, 251, 265, 273, 274, 279
Ojibwa 238,
239,244,247,260,251,256,257,250,261,
262, 267, 269, 274, 275, 278, 279, 283, 284
OtUwa 260,
251, 252, 250, 260, 261, 262, 265, 267, 268, 269
Passamaquoddy 239,267,273,277,283
Penobscot 238,283
Potawatoml 259,262,265,268,260
Sauk 259,267,288
Shawnee.. 238,239,256,257,259,261,262,265,
267, 269, 273, 274, 277, 278, 279, 283, 284
Stockbridge 238,284
independent mode 260,265,269
indicative mode 259, 273
participial mode 245
subjunctive mode 245,260,265,288,269
relationships 233,238,289,290b
Pebsonal pbonouns ( Arapaho) 236 ,
Pestles (Casa Grande) 128 ,
20903**— 28 BTH— 12 20
Page
Petteb, Rodolphe—
on certain Cheyenne terminations 233
on relationship between Cheyenne and
Natick 234
reference to.' 226
Phoenix, Abu., references to 33,
34,51,55,114,116,218
PiBA Clan of Che vlon, reference to 139
PicHACHo Mountain, references to 36, 204
PlCTOOBAPHS—
Apache 197,201
at or near Casa Qninde 148-149
at Yampai Spring 209
in WaUiut Valley 206,214
near Frog Tanks 216
near mouth of Black's Canyon 197
near Palatki 197
near Prescott 215
Pkoan lanouaob—
consonantic clusters 231,284
description 229-232,290a
examples in comparison with—
Cheyenne 274
Eastern Algonquian 261,288-289
Fox 256,261
Natick 274
Shawnee 256,261
inanimate plural of nouns 274
independent mode 259
pronunciation 226
relationships 229,234,259,288-289
PmoAN tbibe— .
linguistic investigations among 225
union of band with Arapaho 235
PioiCENTs (Casa Gbande ) , description of 101,
126-127,130
Pima—
ancient culture 62
as workmen at Casa Grande 37
attitude toward pictognq>hs 149
ball game 147
basketry 147
dwellings 39,97,113,154,156,156
face painting 145
fear of Casa Grande ruin 34
Idcldng-ball game 94
lava rings used by 130
legends 35-36.42-^2,61-62,63-64,65
mortuary customs 109, 117, 118
names for Casa Grande 33
on use of wooden Implements 146
origin 71,152,153,154
pottery 141,147
quarts crystab used by 130
references to 54,57,58,70,115
relationships 71, 217
Russell's monograph on 42
sleeping mats 99
stone implements 123
swastika among 139, 140
See alto Southern Pima.
PiMEBlA, reference to 56
Pinal Lej^as, reference to 217
PiNCELE Y COLLECTION from Casa Grande. ... 120
PiNCKLEY, Fbane, resident custodian of Casa
Grande 34,37,86
Pine, used at Casa Grande 146
304
INDEX
F8g«
Pipes (Casa Grande), description of 135-136
Pit-rooms (Casa Grande), refercDce to 101
See also Subterranean rooms.
Plains tribes, material relating to 15
Planting sticks (Casa Grande). . '. 146
Plazas (Casa Grande), description of. . 03-94,
100-101
Plumed serpent—
Hoplcultof 142
symbolism (Casa Grande) 113, 141-142
Plummet, specimen found at Casa Grande. . 125
Popes Creek, Md. , collection from 21
Porto Rico aborigines, article on 13
Poso Verde, in Pima legend 48
Possessive pronoun—
Arapaho 235
Fox 256
PosTON Butte, reference to 114
Poston, Col. C. D., reference to 149
Potawatomi language—
description 261-282,265-269
e.xamples in comparison with—
Algomdn.... 259,262,271
Central Algonquian 245
Cree 245 , 282
Cree-Montagnais 259
Fox 259,262
Kickapoo 259
Menomloee 259,262
Natick 271
Ojibwa 245,259,262,271
Ottawa 259,262,271
Peoria 259,382,271
Sauk 259
Shawnee 259,262
relationships 238,289,290a
Potawatomi tribe—
habitat 290
linguistic investigations among 225
Potential subjunctive mode ( Fox ) 259
Pottery—
ancient Pima 62
Casa Grande—
Bandelier's reference to 70
decoration 133. 134, 137-142
paddles used in manufacture 146-147
reference to 68
specialized forms 133-137
Gllft-Salt region 156
Little Colorado ruins 134, 137-141
Marx's ranch ruin 213-214
Sikyatki 134.137,131^141
Southwestern and Mexican areas, com-
pared 137-142,168-169
Walnut Creek regton 220
Powell, Maj. J. W., on ancient i>eople of
Upper Verde-Walnut Creek region 186
Prescott, Ariz.—
references to 202,204,215
ruins near 218
Prescott National Forest, Ariz 21 1
Prescott, Wm.H., cited as to Casa Grande.. 53
Preservation of Casa Grande ruin, Ariz... 17,18
Preterite—
in ban 269
in p and panne 279
in pa n *. 287
Page
Prince Edward Island, raferaoce to 290
Prince, Prof. J. Dyneley—
acknowledgment to 225
forms cited by 239
on certain Algonquian relationships 289
Penobscot oonsonantlc dusters 280, 282
reference to 275
Problematical implements (Casa
Grande) 126,120
Pronominal ELEMENTS,obJective( Arapaho) . 237
Pronominal forms of verb, reference to 226
Pronouns, Eastern-Central Algonquian.. 237,238
Pronunoation of Algonquian languages. . 226-228
Pseudo-clusters (Cheyenne) 233
PuBucATioNS OF BUREAU, description of. 17, 19-20
Pueblo, term defined 189
Pueblo Creek—
origin of name 207,210
reference to 209
Pueblos (buildings) —
architecture of 155,156-167,187
associated with cavate lodges 188-189
not fbund west of upper Verde 220
relation to compotuds 150-160
Pueblos (Indians)—
adobe construction used by 80
animal fetishes among 122
divisions 189
pigments used by 130
pottery 141
quartz crystals used by 130
rattles used by 145
reliBrenceto 33
relationship 230
Pueblos of Rio Grande, reference to 219
Pueblo Viejo Valley, reference to 118, 141
QUAHATIZA—
basketry 140
mescalpits 116
origin 153
pottery 140
reference to 112
Quartz crystals, used by Southwestern
tribes... 130
QuiOYUMA, reference to 209
QuuoTOAC, reference to 140
Radin, Dr. Paul, on OJlbwa dialect 290a
Rain ceremonies (Casa Grande) 113
Rain GOD8, in Pima legend 42,47
Rain-man, in Pima legend 47-48
Rani>—
onMicmaoform 284
work by, cited 238
Rasles, reference to 238
Rattlesnakes at Casa Grande.. .' 34
Ray, Thomas, work of 37
Red Rocks, cliff-houses of the 161, 194-107
Refuse-heaps (Casa Grande) 92, 111
Relative mode (Delaware) 279
Reuqion of ancients, referenoes to 47,
48,116,117,118
See also Idols, Magic, Plumed serpent.
Reptiles, idols in form of (Casa Grande). . 121, 122
Researches, ethnologic, summarized ^17
INDEX
305
Page
Reservoirs—
Casa Grande 70,111-113
Gila-Salt region 115
Rib AS, Father, on Southern Pima 70-71, 152
Rio Altar, reference to 56
Rio Bavispe, reference to 56
Rio Grande region—
caves 188
derivation of pueblos 151
early inhabitants 151, 218
pottery 139,140
Pueblos 219
Rio San Pedro, xeferenoe to 54
Rio Santa Crxtz, reference to 54
Rio Sonoea, reference to 54
Roaivrvnner, the, in Pima legend 47
Robber's Roost Cave, reference to 196
Roops(Casa Grande)—
modem protective covering 72
original 142
Rooms (Casa Grande) , description of 74-79,
82,80^92,97-90,106-109
Roosevelt Dam, reference to 51
Routes to Casa Grande, description of. . . 34-37
Rubbing STONES (Casa Grande) 127
RuDO Ensayo, description of Casa Grande. . 56-57
Rupert's House Cree—
•character 247
form from 248
pronunciation 227
See also Montagnais.
Russell, Dr. Frank—
monograph on Pima 42
on lava rings (Pima) 130
on metates 126
on Pima legends as to their origin 155
on word «ite 46
references to 45, 118
RuxTON, George Frederic, cited as to Casa
Grande 53
Sacaton, references to ^r 1^0
SAGUARo.in Pima legend 44,52,61
Sala Hina. Pima potter 140
Salt River Valley—
ancient migration route 157
antlquiUes 17,119
flgiirines of quadrupeds from 135
legendary home of Pima 51
references to 35,55, 147
See aito Glla-Salt region.
San Bernardino Mountains, in Pima
legend 47
Sandstorms, effect of, at Casa Grande 42
Sanford's Mill, Ariz., description of 34-35
San lost, ruin at 118
San Juan Capistkano de Uturituc, refer-
ence to : 37
San Juan region—
pottery from 138, 140
ruins 151,194
San Pedro Valley, references to. . 54, 118, 121, 220
Santa Catalina Mountains, references to. 48,112
Santa Clara Pueblo, researehes in 11
Santa Cruz, upper, pottery from 137
San Xavier DEL Bac, referanoe to 64
Page
Sapib, Dr. Edward—
Abnald forms from 286
acknowledgment to 225
examples of Montagnais from 248
on Delaware and OJIbwa dialects . . . 290a, 2gob
on Maledte form 287
on Rupert's House Cree and Mon-
tagnais 247
references to 228,238,239,278,290
work of 15
Sauk language—
certain forms in 239
description 25^255,258-261
examples in comparison with-
Cree , Micmac 288
Eastem-Cen tral Algonquian 237
Fox, Peoria 272,288
Kickapoo, Menominee, OJIbwa,
Shawnee 272
independent mode 280
noun endings 272
pronunciation 227
relationships 238, 244, 280
See ttUn Fox, Kickapoo.
Sauk tribe—
habitat 290
Ungulstio investigations among 225
Sault Ste. Marie, raference to 290
Savedra, cited as to several tribes 216, 217
ScATicooK language, reference to 279
Scrapers, STONE (Casa Grande) 132
Searles, Stanley, work of 19
Sedelmair, Father Jacob, visit to Casa
Grande 56
Seeds found at Casa Grande 150
Seligman, Ariz., reference to 186
Seranos. See Cuabajai.
Shawnee Indians, linguistic investigations
among 225
Shawnee language—
certain forms in 239
coi^unctive mode 234, 255, 255, 271, 272, 279
consonantic clusters 283
description 255-258
examples In comparison with—
Abnaki 238,239,283,284
AJgonkin 243,244,
252, 259, 261, 282, 265, 267, 271-272, 273
Cheyenne 234
Cree 238,239,243,244,245,252.261,262,
266,267.269.271,272,274,279,283,284,286
Cree»Montagnais 259,287
Delaware 238,239.243.244,261,265,
267.270,274,277,278,279-280,283,287.288
Eastern Algonquian ... 261 , 269, 270, 287, 288
Eastern-Central Algonquian 237
Fox 238,239,245,262,
258, 259. 261, 262. 265. 267. 260, 270, 271,
272,274,279-280.283,284,286,287, 288
Kickapoo 267,272
Menominee 238,239,243,244,
259,261,262,267,270,272,279,283,284
Mkmac 238,272,279,284,288
Minsi 239.274
Montagnais .' 267
Natick 238,239,243,244,265,273,274
306
IKDEX
Pac»
Shawkee languaob— ConttDned.
exunptes in oomparfsoa vitli— Contd.
Ojibwa 238.239,213.244,
245.258. 2S0. 261. 282. 265, 267. 2«.20». 27D>
271. 272. 274. 277. 278. 279. 28S, 281. 286. 287
OtUwiL 2S9.261.382.26&.267.271
Pisamsquoddy 239.243, '
258.259,267.273.277.278.283.284.286.287 '
Penofaaoot 238,267.283.284 |
Peoria.... 238. 239. 252. 2S9. 261. 282.265. 267,
209.270.271.272.273.274.277.279.283.284
Pieeaii 261
Potawatomi 259.262
Sauk 267.271.272
Stockbridge 238.284
Turtle Mountain (Ojibva dialect) ... 239
independent mode 254.268.286.289
indicative mode 273
noon ending 272
participial mode 245.265.271
proDiinciation 227
pplatiaaships. 231. 238. 244. 258. 280. 288-290. 29Qa
subjnnrtiro mode 255.200.265.269
Shkul Objects <Casa Giande), deacription
of 143>145
SmvciA. SmwoXA, native name of Zoiki
coumiy 46
Bhoxgopoti, pottery of 141
Sbook's raxch—
leiprenoeto 210
rains near 211-213
Shovels (Casa Grande)—
stone 131-132 *
wooden 115,146
8HBIKBS vCaSUL GEAKDE) —
description 101
objects ioond in 98. 101. 121. Lio. 142-143
refefenoeto 98
BiAUif ClTAXAvlAEi, Pima name for Casa
Grande S3
SuLDC Tit TIE. Sfe Morning Green.
SniA.sipiificanceorterm 46
SiSEKA Madee. Mexico. cUtf-hooaes in 151
Skjvea. Algooquian major lin^roistie divi-
sion 229
Set mJm Blackfoot.
Sktatei—
mortuary customs 117, lis
posit'rv from 134,136,15^-159
S€< clso Tusayan.
SnviEEA\*E5. L.. lefereooes to I'*,2n7
Sl-v A-xo. K IXG, tef^ndar^* Prau ch v( 45. €3
Sit «:«» a-v;4-oi\.
Seixnee, citeO as loCrw 247.24S
Slabs ,Cajul Geaxi»e\ d«9criptinn of—
Hay i:i6
siooe 125.l:^,ia>
Smith. BiXEiXGaAM. r^len^now to 55.56
Smoke siGXJLLixo. rrfrt«ice to 207
Sm«xithtowx. Delaware diii#ct asob
SXAEE cljlx. Ilopi. refcfnpDCf io I5d "
SXAKS fEiLSis of AVaipL n^k^^ao^ to 145
SXAKE. THE, in Pima floiO li»«»-nv! 5i> I
Sxirs, THE. in PItnA CTV:a;xin k>^nU 49 '
SoRAtri'Ei. iviex«Di>es lo M.5S I
SO hO. k^'rKlary Kima chit^f 44-to 61 -«:
Soxo&A. M£XK\>. ivfewnc«s to i4, :« .
Pace
SotrfREEK FDf A, refeienoes to 70,182
SPAinsH BXPLOKKES, eariy, teferenoe to 186
Spanish missonaexes, efforts to reach Hopi. 207
Spbab-pointb (Cam Grande), refennoe to.. . . 130
Speck, De. Feane G.—
acknowledgment to 290
material of 275
SriDEE, THE, in Pima legend 46
SriNDLE WHOKIJS (Casa Grande), descriptkm
of 136
SQtJISE, E. O.—
cited as to Can Grande 53
workby, cited #4
St. AXVB OE ReSIIOOIXHE, Ifiwwo dJB.
lectat 288
STETEK90N, MES. M. C—
ooUectioos made by 20
work of 10-U
Stockbbidoe lakocaoe—
examples from 338,284
notes on 290
Stohb implkmbxts. Set Implements.
STOEM<LorD. TBS, in Pima leigend 43.00
Stueatbik CfTAXATlAKi, le|!Pndary Pima
set tlement SI
8t7AMCA Mnaroir, reference to 56
SiTBAlPirEis. See Sobaipurl
SmnrxcnvE mode ( .\I^onqiiian>—
Ciee 246-247,248,266,309.271
Delaware 246. 360, 365, 308. r 5-279
Eastern-Central .Vlgonqnian 217-238
EastMainCree 3»
Fort Totten Cree 241-242. 245-2C3S3
Fox 24H, 254,250.300. 365,369, 372, r4,2SS
216.351-352,309
Montacnais
Katick 234,300.!
Ojibwa.245, 246, 239, 300. 363-363, 306, 307. 308-30
Otttwa. 246.300.206.308,300
Peoria. 245. 2«. 255. 368. 209. 270. 2n
Potawatomi
Shawnee
See aim Suppositive.
Stnui'xcnTE - paetkipial mode « Mgan-
qnfatnV — * •
Crae SI9,3tt,2i5
Fox. Ojibwa 345
8rBTEE&.iX£AX EOOM5. Ca^ Grande . 40. 97. 101 . 102
St:7rwoESHiP. refercDcvs to 47.41^116
SrPEEjsTrnox Moi-xr aix*—
in Pimalewnd
nOBrence to
••Scppaanr** ol tiie ••subjooMif—
Montacnais.
reierences to
St:TPV>SmVE MODE vAl^roDquun' —
NatK-k 234,:
spvuv^ .\.l|r.>i>qu]An lan^nx&Jftr. .
S<* «.'» Subjuntti^Tf.
Sttaio laxovaoe. rei»r«i»:v :o
SwjlXt\>x. De, Johx R,—
rpierenee to,
wxxkot
SWA5TIEA, 0£1 Iv;tfeT7
Stcamoee B.vsix.ivlerv^^e to
StcaMv^ee C a-vtox . rum5 m l»5k.
Sycamoee Oelee, iv^ecvDc^s u> 19^301
INDEX
807
Page
Tablets, 8T0NX (Casa Grande) 126
Taxelm A LANOVAOE, data on 15
Taluquamays, reference to 209
Tanoan clans, reference to 168
Taos Pueblo, N. Hex.—
odlectjon from 20
researches in 10,11
TcACCA , Pima name for Pichacbo Mountain. . 30
TcAMAmA clans (Hopl), reference to 15(^160
TcEBNATSiNo, legendary Pima chief 46-46
TcuHU, in Pima legend 48-40,60,51,52
TcuHUKi, description of 101, 149
TcuRiKVlAKi, ruin near AdamsvUle, Ariz. . . 36
TcuwvT Marka. See Earth I>octor.
Tempe, Ariz., references to 61,56,116
Ternaux-Compans, work by, cited 68
Tewa, pottery of 141,159
Texan tribes, history of 16-17
Texas (HasInai), description of. 17
Thin Leather, Pima informant 34, 44, 45, 46
Thomas, Dr. Cyrus—
xeferenceto 220
work of. 11-12
Thumb Butte, Ariz. , pictogrephs near 215
Thunder, in Pima legend 47
TiouA, relbrenoe to 169
Tims, J. W., on certain Piegan forms 231-232
TiPONi, reference to 49
Tobacco Clan of Chevlon, reference to 139
Tobacco, nauve, found at Casa Grande. . . 143
Tohouse, in Pima legend 40,60,51
ToKA, legendary Pima game 46
Tok6nabi, reference to 169
Tombstone, Ariz., reference to 54
ToNTO, in Pima legend 51-62
ToNTo Basin—
"magic tablet" recorded from 122
pottery 140
reference to 51
ToNTO River, ancient migration route . 153, 158, 218
TONTOS—
description 210
reference to 61
Totonteac, derivation of term 51
TowA Quaatam Ochse, legendary Pima
magician 61
Traditions connected with Casa Grande 42-52
Trinchera—
comparison with "fort" 187,218
conHruction rare in Pueblo region 220
Trumbull, J. H.—
Natlck Dictionary of, cited 275
Natick forms from 272
Tsihakwe, home of 220
TuBAC, reference to 57
Tubutam A Mission, reference to 50
Tucson, Ari^. , references to 34, 54, 05
Tunica, researches among 12
Turkey Creek, explanation m to name 207
Turquoise—
in Pima legend 46-47
in shell work 144
mosaic work In 131
Turtle Mountain Chippewa, linguistic in-
vestigations among 225
Turtle Mountain Ojibwa dulect, refer-
ence to 239
Page
TuBATAN, pottery from 137, 139
See oho SIkyatki
TusAYAN Indians, refierBnoe to 79
TuscARosA Reservation (Ontario), re-
searches on 15
TutELO language, data on 15
Uhlknbeck, C. C—
on certain Piegan forms 231-232
xeferenceto 226
Unalachugo DULECT, references to.. 275,290,29Qa
Unami Di&UECT, references to 275,290,200a
UNrncRSTTY OP Calipornu, archeologic ex-
ploratioDs by 18
Upham, E. p., specimens from Casa Grande
listed by 101
Utah, difl-dwellings of 151
Uturttoc, old Pima settlement 37,43
VIakx, Pima name for Casa Grande 33
Vbqetation about Casa Grande 30
Verbal compounds, Northern Blackfoot 231
Verbal forms—
Aiapaho 235
Micmac 280
Verde Valley—
ancient migration route ^ 153,168,218
antiquities of, memoir on 22
eariy inhabitants 21 0-219
pottery 140
ruins 151,187,219-220
Vl-pl-sjtr, designation of ancestors of Pima. . . 71
Vowels (Algonqulan), elimination of 284
Wadoworth, Cal., reference to 47
Walapai, ancestors of 185,210,220
Walker, J. D.—
Pima legend from 46
reference to 71
Walker's Butte, reference to 30
Walls of Casa Grande, construction of 80-81,
82,83-84,96-90,97,102,100-107,110
Walnxtt Creek region—
absence of large "compounds" 218
early inhabitants 206,210-219
habitations of aborigines 200
irrigation works 214
pictographs 214,210
pottery 220
ruins-
age of 219-220
description 187,209
history 200-211
references to 22,194,195,210
Walpi, Hopi settlement, references to 35,
48,142,159-160
Walthxe, Henry, work of 21
Weaver, Paul, reference to 02,149
Western clan-houses, Casa Grande 112
Wheeler Survey REPORTS, reference to.. 186
Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner, on early
inhabitants of Ariiona 210-217
Whipple, Lieut. A. W.—
Astec Pass fort mentioned by 210
on Walnut Creek VaUey 200-209
308
INDEX
Page
Whxtx Fkathsr, ancient Pima chief. . 35-36, 60, 51
White Mountains, in Pima legend 52
WiLLIAlfSOK VALLKY, ARIZ.—
references to 204,a07
ruins 216
Wind, In Pima legend : 43,60
Wind GODS, reference to 42
Wind-man, in Pima legend 47-48
Windmill RANCH, reference to 105
WiNSHir, cited as to Coronado expedition 53
WiNSLow, Ariz., reference to 218
WissLER, on linguistic differences among Al-
gonquian tribes 22»
Woman of Hard Substance, legendary
Hopi being 51
Women—
as basket makers' 147
as potters 141
Wooden implements (Casa Grande), de>
scriptionof 14^147
Woodpecker, the, in Pima flood legend — 50
WuKKAKOTK, in Pima flood legend 51
Wyoming, archeologic exploistions in 18
Pace
Yabipais, Yampais. 8te YavapaL
Yampai Spring, pictographs at 209
Yaqui Rivxr, reference to 56
Yavapai—
ancestors of. 185,216
refarenoesto 58,307
Yavapai County, Ariz. , reference to 186
Yaya, Hopi Are priests .• 47
Yuma—
in Pima flood legend 51
relationship 220
YuMAN stock, cremation practised by 220
Zkisberoer—
on Delaware language 275, 279, 2gOa, 290b
reference to 228
ZuSi—
absence of cremation 117
dwelUnjp 150, 219
early inhabitants 154, 150,218
pottery 160
references to 46.62,220
in 11
UST OF PUBLICATIONS OF THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN
ETHNOLOGY
With Index to Authors and Titles
NOTE
The publications of the Bureau of American Ethnology consist of
Contributions to North American Ethnology, Annual Reports, Bulle-
tins, Introductions, and Miscellaneous Publications.
* The series of Contributions, in quarto, was begun in 1877 by the
Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region
(J. W. Powell, director). Of the earlier numbers, printed under
authority of special resolutions of Congress, volumes i, n (in two
parts) , and ni had been completed when, in the year 1879, the Bureau
of Ethnology was organized, with J. W. Powell as director. In
March, 1881, the publication of volumes vi, vii, viii, ix, and x was
authorized by concurrent resolution of Congress, but the series was
discontinued in 1895, after volumes i to vii and ix had been completed.
The publication of the Annual Reports in royal octavo form began
with that for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1880. Until 1895 the
successive reports were each authorized by Congress, usually by con-
current resolution; since that time they have been published under
authority of the law providing for the printing and binding and the
distribution of public documents, approved January 12, 1895.
At the close of the fiscal year 1911-12, twenty-seven Annual Reports
had appeared (the Fourteenth, Seventeenth, Eighteenth, Nineteenth,
and Twenty-second, each in two parts), in all, thirty-two volumes.
The Twenty-eighth Report has since been published.
The present maximum edition of the Annual Reports is 9,850
copies. Of these the Senate receives 1,500, the House of Representa-
tives 3,000, and the Bureau of American Ethnology 3,500 copies.
From the remaining 1,850 copies are drawn the personal copies of
Senators, Representatives, and Delegates, and 500 copies for distri-
bution to Government libraries and to designated public depositories ^
throughout the country. The remainder are sold by the Superin-
tendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, at a slight
advance on the cost.
^Each Senator, Representatlye, and Delegate in Congress Is entitled to designate one
depository to receive all public documents (see annual reports of the Superintendent of
Documents, Ooyemment Printing Office).
I
n BUREAU OF AMEBICAK ETHNOLOGY
In August, 1886, the director of the bureau was authorized by
joint resolution of Congress to begin the publication of a series of
bulletins, which were issued in octavo form and in paper covers, and
in July, 1888, the continuation of the series was authorized by concur-
rent resolution. Provision for publishing the bulletins was omitted
from the public printing law of January 12, 1895, and the issue termi-
nated in 1894. Up to that time 24 bulletins had been published. By
concurrent resolution in April, 1900, Congress authorized the resump-
tion of the Bulletin series in royal octavo form. Nos. 25, 26, and 27
were issued under this provision, and in February, 1903, by joint
resolution of Congress the octavo form was again resumed. Since
then bulletins 28, 29, 30 (in two parts) ,^ 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37,
38, 39, 40 (part 1), 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, and 52 have
appeared, while Nos. 40 (part 2) and 46 are in press. The maximum
edition of the Bulletin series is 9,850 copies, of which the Senate
receives 1,500, the House of Representatives 3,000, and the Bureau of
American Ethnology 3,500 copies. The remaining 1,850 copies are
distributed by the Superintendent of Documents, Government Print-
ing Office. Of these about 500 copies are sent to designated libraries ;
the rest are held by him for sale at a price slightly above cost.
Besides the series mentioned there have been issued small editions
of four Introductions and of eight Miscellaneous Publications,
intended wholly or chiefly for the use of collaborators and corre-
spondents. These were not specially authorized by Congress, but
as a rule were paid for from the annual appropriations for continuing
researches.
With the exception of the few copies of the publications of the
biu^au disposed of by the Superintendent of Documents the editions
are distributed free of charge. The quota allowed the bureau is
distributed mainly to libraries and institutions of learning and to
collaborators and others engaged in anthropological research or in
instruction.
Annual Reforto
First annual report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the secretary of
the Smithsonian Institution 1879-80 by J. W. Powell director
[Vignette] Washington Government Printing Office 1881 *
Roy. 8**. XXXV, 603 p., 347 fig. (incl. 54 pL), map. Out of print.
Report of the Director. P. xi~xxxiii.
On the evolution of language, as exhibited in the specialization of the gram-
matic processes, the differentiation of the parts of speech, and the integra-
tion of the sentence ; from a study of Indian languages, by J. W. Powell.
P. 1-16.
^By eoncnrrent resolution of Congress in August, 1912, a reprint of Bulletin SO was
ordered in an edition of 6,500 copies, of which 4,000 were for the use of the House of
Representatives, 2,000 for the use of the Senate, and 500 for the use of the Bureau of
American Ethnology.
LIST OP PUBLICATIONS IH
Sketch of the mythology of tlie North American Indians, by J. W. Powell.
P. 17-156.
Wyandot government: a short study of tribal society, by J. W. Powell.
P. 67-09.
On limitations to the use of some anthropologic data, by J. W. Powell.
P. 71-88.
A further contribution to the study of the mortuary customs of the North
American Indians, by Dr. H. C. Yarrow, act. asst. surg., U. S. Army.
P. 87-208, fig. 1-47.
Studies in Central American picture-writing, by Edward S. Holden, pro-
fessor of mathematics, U. S. Naval Observatory. P. 205-245, fig. 4S-dO.
Cessions of land by Indian tribes to the United States : illustrated by those
in the state of Indiana, by C. C. Royce. P. 247-262, map.
Sign language among North American Indians compared with that among
other peoples and deaf mutes, by Garrick Mallery. P. 263-552, fig. 61-
842a, 842&-846.
Catalogue of linguistic manuscripts in the library of the Bureau of Eth-
nology, by James C. Pilling. P. 558-577.
Illustration of the method of recording Indian languages. From the manu-
scripts of Messrs. J. O. Dorsey, A. S. Gatschet, and S. R. Riggs. P. 579-589.
Index. P. 591-603.
Second annual report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the secretary
of the Smithsonian Institution 1880-81 by J. W. Powell director
[Vignette] Washington Government Printing Office 1883 [1884]
Roy. 8°. XXXVII, 477 p., 77 pL, fig. 1-35, 347-714 (382 of these
forming 98 pi.) 9 ^ maps. Out of print.
Report of the Director. P. xt-xxxvii.
Znfii fetiches, by Frank Hamilton Gushing. P. 3-45, pi. i-xi, fig. 1-3.
Myths of the Iroquois, by Ermlnnle A. Smith. P. 47-116, pi. xii-xv.
Animal carvings from mounds of the Mississippi valley, by Henry W. Hen-
Shaw. P. 117-166, fig. 4^35.
Navajo silversmiths, by Dr. Washington Matthews, U. S. Army. P. 167-178,
pi. xvi-xx.
Art In shell of the ancient Americans, by William H. Holmes. P. 179-^305,
pi. XXI-LXXVII.
Illustrated catalogue of the collections obtained from the Indians of New
Mexico and Arizona In 1879, by James Stevenson. P. 307-422, fig. 347-697,
map.
Illustrated catalogue of the collections obtained from the Indians of New
Mexico In 1880, by James Stevenson. P. 423-465, fig. 698-714, map.
Index. P. 467-477.
Third annual report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the secretary
of the Smithsonian Institution. 1881-82 by J. W. Powell director
[Vignette] Washington Government Printing OflSce 1884 [1885]
Roy. 8°. Lxxiv, 606 p., 44 pi., 200 (+2 unnumbered) fig. Out
of print.
Beport of the Director. P. xiii-lxxiv.
On actlvltal similarities. P. lxv-lxxiv.
Notes on certain Maya and Mexican manuscripts, by Prof. Cyrus Thomas.
P. a-65, pi. i-iv, fig. 1-10.
IV BUBEAU OF AMBBICAN ETHNOLOGY
On masks, labrets, and certain aboriginal customs, with an inquiry into the
bearing of their geographical distribution, by William Healey Dall, assist-
ant U. S. Coast Survey ; honorary curator U. S. National Museum. P. 67-
, 202, pi. v-xxix. *
Omaha sociology, by Rev. J. Owen Dorsey. P. 205-^0, pi. xxx-xxxin,
fig. 12-^2.
Navajo weavers, by Dr. Washington Matthews, U. 8. A. P. 371-391, pi.
xxxiv-xxxviii, fig. 42-59.
Prehistoric textile fabrics of the United States, derived from impressions on
pottery, by William H. Holmes. P. 393-425, pi. xxxix, fig. 60-115.
Illustrated catalogue of a portion of the collections made by the Bureau of
Ethnology during the^field season of 1881, by William H. Holmes. P. 427-
510, fig. 116-200.
Illustrated catalogue of the collections obtained from the pueblos of ZuQi,
New Mexico, and Wolpi, Arizona, in 1881, by James Stevenson. P. 511-
594, pi. xL-XLiv.
Index. P. 596-606.
Fourth annual report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the secretary
of the Smithsonian Institution 1882-83 by J. W. Powell director
[Vignette] Washington Government Printing Office 1886 [1887]
Boy. 8®. Lxiii, 532 p., 83 pL, 565 fig. Oxit of print.
Report of the Director. P. xxvii-Lxin.
Pictographs of the Nortli American Indians. A preliminary paper, by
Garrick Mallery. P. a-256, pi. i-Lxxxiii, flg. 1-111, llla-209.
Pottery of the ancient Pueblos, by William H. Holmes. P. 257-360, flg.
210-360.
Ancient pottery of the Mississippi valley, by William H. Holmes. P. 361-
436, flg. 361-463.
Origin and development of form and ornament in ceramic art, by William
H. Holmes. P. 437-^65, flg. 464-489.
A study of Pueblo pottery as Illustrative of Zufil culture growth, by B*rank
Hamilton Gushing. P. 467-521, flg. 490-564.
Index to accompanying papers. P. 523A-532.
Fifth annual report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the secretary
of the Smithsonian Institution 1883-84 by J. W. Powell director
[Vignette] Washington Government Printing Office 1887 [1888]
Roy. 8°. Liii, 564 p., 23 pi. (inch 2 pocket maps), 77 fig. Out
of print,
I Report of the Director. P. xvii-liii.
Burial mounds of the northern sections of the United States, by Prof. Cyrus
Thomas. P. 3-119, pi. i-vi, flg. 1-49.
The Cherokee Nation of Indians : a narrative of their official relations with
the colonial and federal governments, by Charles C. Royce. P. 121-378,
pi. viii-ix (pi, VII and ix are i)ocket maps).
The mountain chant: a Xavajo ceremony, by Dr. Washington Matthews,
r. S. Army. P. 379-407. pi. x-xviii. flg. 50-59.
The Seminole Indians of Florida, by Clay MacCauley. P. 469-531, pi. xix.
flg. 60-77.
The reli^ous life of the Zufii child, by Mrs. Tilly E. Stevenson. P. 533-555.
pi. XX-XXIII.
Index. P. 557-564.
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS V
Sixth annual report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the secretary
of the Smithsonian Institution 1884-85 by J, W. Powell director
[Vignette] Washington Government Printing Office 1888 [1889]
Boy. 8°. Lviii, 675 p. (incl. 6 p. of music), 10 pi. (incl. 2 pocket
maps) , 546 fig., 44 small unnumbered cuts. Out of print.
Report of the Director. P. xxiii-lviii.
AucieDt art of the province of Chiriqui, Colombia, by William H. Holmes.
P. 3-187, pi. I, fig. 1-285.
A study of the textile art in its relation to the development of form and
ornament, by William H. Holmes. P. 189-252. fig. 286-358.
Aids to the study of the Maya codices, by Prof. Cyrus Thomas. P. 253-371,
fig. 359-388.
Osage traditions, by Rev. J. Owen Dorsey. P. 373-397, fig. 389.
The Central Eskimo, by Dr. Franz Boas. P. 399-669, pi. ii-x, fig. 890--546
(pi. n and in are pocket maps).
Index. P. 671^75.
Seventh annual report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the secretary
of the Smithsonian Institution 1885-86 by J. W. Powell director
[Vignette] Washington Government Printing Office 1891 [1892]
Roy. 8°. xLiii, 409 p., 27 pi. (incl. pocket map), 39 fig. Out of
print.
Report of the Director. P. xv-xli.
Indian linguistic families of America north of Mexico, by J. W. Powell.
P. 1-142, pi. I (pocket map).
The Mldg'wiwln or "grand medicine society" of the OJibwa, by W. J.
Hoffman. P. 143-300, pi. ii-xxni, flg. 1-39.
The sacred formulas of the Cherokees, by James Mooney. P. 301-397, pi.
XXIV-XXVII.
Index. P. 399-409.
Eighth annual report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the secretary
of the Smithsonian Institution 188&-87 by J. W. Powell director
[Vignette] Washington Government Printing Office 1891 [1893]
Roy. 8°. XXXVI, 298 p., 128 pL, 118 fig. Out of print.
Report of the Director. P. xiii-xxxvi.
A study of Pueblo architecture: Tusayan and Cibola, by Victor MlndelefT.
P. 3-228, pi. i-cxi, flg. 1-114.
Ceremonial of Hasjeltl Dalljls and mythical sand painting of the Navajo
Indians, by James Stevenson. P. 229-2S5, pi. cxii-cxxiii, fig. 115-118.
Index. P. 287-298.
Ninth annual report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the secretary
of the Smithsonian Institution 1887-88 by J. W. Powell director
[Vignette] Washington Government Printing Office 1892 [1893]
Koy. 8°. xiiVi, 617 p., 8 pi., 448 fig. Out of print.
Report of the Director. P. xix-xlvi.
Ethnological results of the Point Barrow expedition, by John Murdoch,
naturalist and observer. International Polar expedition to Point Barrow,
Alaska, 1881-1883. P. 3-441, pi. i-ii, flg. 1-428.
The medicine-men of the Apache, by John G. Bourke, captain, third cavalry,
U. S. Army. P. 443-608, pi. iii-viii, flg. 429-448.
Index. P. 605-617.
VI BUBEATJ OF AMEBICAK ETHNOLOGY
Tenth annual report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the secretary
of the Smithsonian Institution 1888-89 by J. W. Powell director
[Vignette] Washington Government Printing Office 1893 [1891]
Boy. 8° XXX, 822 p., 54 pL, 1291 fig., 116 small uimumbered cuts.
Out of print.
Report of the Director. P. m-xzz.
Picture-writing of the American Indians, by Garrick Mallery. P. 3-807, pL
i-UY, fig. 1-145, 1450-1290.
Index. P. 809^822.
Eleventh annual report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the secretary
of the Smithsonian Institution 1889-90 by J. W. Powell director
[Vignette] Washington Government Printing Office 1894
Roy. 8°. XLvn, 653 p., 50 pi., 200 fig. Out of print.
Report of the Director. P. xxi-xlvii.
The Sia, by Matilda Coxe Stevenson. P. 8-157, pi. i-xzxy, fig. 1-20.
Ethnology of the Ungava district, Hudson Bay territory, by Lncien M.
Turner. [Edited by John Murdoch.] P. 159-350, pi. xxxn-xun, fig.
21-156.
A study of Siouan cults, by James Owen Doraey. P. 351-544, pi. xut-l,
fig. 15^-200.
Index. P. 545-553.
Twelfth annual report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the secretary
of the Smithsonian Institution 1890-91 by J. W. Powell director
[Vignette] Washington Government Printing Office 1894
Roy. 8°. XLVin, 742 p., 42 pL, 344 fig. Out of print.
Report of the Director. P. xix-xlvii.
Report on the mound explorations of the Bureau of Ethnology, by Cyrus
Thomas. P. 3-730, pi. i-zLn, fig. 1-344.
Index. P. 731-742.
Thirteenth annual report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the secre-
tary of the Smithsonian Institution 1891-92 by J. W. Powell
director [Vignette] Washington Government Printing Office 1896
Roy. 8**. MX, 462 p., 60 pi., 330 fig. Out of print.
Report of the Director. P. xix-lix.
Prehistoric textile art of Eastern United States, by William Henry Holmes.
P. 3-46, pi. i-ix, flg. 1-28.
Stone art, by Gerard Fowke. P. 47-178, flg. 29-278.
Aboriginal remains in Verde valley, Arizona, by Ck>8mos Mindeleff. P.
179-261, pi. x-L, flg. 279-306.
Omaha dwellings, furniture, and implements, by James Owen Dorsey. P.
263-288, fig. 306-^27.
Case Grande ruin, by Cosmos Mindeleff. P. 289-319, pi. li-lx, flg. 328-330.
Outlines of Zufii creation myths, by Frank Hamilton Gushing. P. 321-447.
Index. P. 449-462.
Fourteenth annual report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the secre-
tary of the Smithsonian Institution 1891^-93 by J. W. Powell
director In two parts — part 1 [-2] [Vignette] Washington Gov-
ernment Printing Office 1896 [1897]
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS Vn
Roy. 8**. Two parts, lxi, 1-637; 689-1186 p., 122 pi., 104 fig.
Otct of print.
Report of the Director. P. zzt-lzi.
The Menomini Indians, by Walter James Hoffman, M. D. P. 3-328, pi.
i-xxxvii, flg. 1-55.
The Ck>ronado expedition, 1540-1542, by George Parker Winship. P. 329-
613, pi. xxxvni-Lxxxiv.
Index to part 1. P. 615-637.
•The Ghost-dance religion and the Sioux outbreak of 1890, by James Mooney.
P. 641-1110, pi. Lxxxv-cxxii, flg. 56-104. »
Index to part 2. P. 1111-1136.
Fifteenth annual report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the secre-
tary of the Smithsonian Institution. 1898-94 by J. W. Powell
director [Vignette] Washington Government Printing Office 1897
Roy. 8°. cxxi, 366 p., frontispiece, 125 pi., 49 fig. Out of print.
Report of the Director. P. xv-cxxi.
On regimentation. P. crv-cxxi.
Stone Implements of the Potomac-Chesapeake tidewater province, by Wil-
liam Henry Holmes. P. 3-152, pi. i-om and frontispiece, flg. l-29a.
The Slouan Indians : a preliminary sketch, by W J McGee. P. 153-204.
Slouan sociology: a posthumous paper, by James Owen Dorsey. P. 205-
244, flg. 30-38.
Tusayan katclnas, by Jesse Walter Fewkes. P. 245-313, pi. civ--oxi, flg.
89-48.
The repair of Casa Grande ruin, Arizona, In 1891, by Cosmos Mlndeleff.
P. 315-349, pi. cxii-cxxv.
Index. P. 351-366.
Sixteenth annual report of the Bureau of American Ethnology to
the secretary of the Smithsonian Institution 1894-95 by J. W.
Powell director [Vignette] Washington Government Printing
Office 1897
Boy. 8"*. cxix, 826 p., 81 pi., 88 fig. Out of print.
Report of the Director. P. xin-cxix.
List of publications of the Bureau of American Ethnology. P. oi-oxix.
Primitive trephining In Peru, by Manuel Antonio Mufilz and W J McGee.
P. 3-72, pi. i-XL.
The cUff-rulns of Canyon de Ch^ly, Arizona, by Cosmos Mlndeleff. P. 73-
198, pi. Lxi-Lxm, flg. 1-83.
Day symbols of the Maya year, by Cyrus Thomas. P. 199-265, pi. lxiv-
LXIX.
Tusayan snake ceremonies, by Jesse Walter Fewkes. P. 267--312, pi. lxx-
LXXXI.
Index. P. 313-326.
Seventeenth annual report of the Bureau of American Ethnology to
the secretary of the Smithsonian Institution 1895-96 by J. W.
Powell director In two parts— part 1 [-2] [Vignette] Washing-
ton Government Printing Office 1898 [part 1, 1900, part 2, 1901]
Vm BXJBEAU OF AMEBICAN ETHNOLOGY
Roy. 8^ Two parts, xcv, 1-1^8, 129*-344*, 129-468; 465-752
p., 182 pi., 857 fig. Out of print
Report of the Director. P. xxy-xcm.
List of publications of the Bureau of American Ethnology. P. lxzv-
zom.
The Serl Indians, by W J McGee. P. 1-128, 129*-344*, pi. i-rao, raft, iva,
ivb, va, vb, via, nh, vna, rab-ixa, ah-i/n, fig. 1-42.
Comparative lexicology, by J. N. B. Hewitt. P. 299*-S44*.
Calendar history of the Kiowa Indians, by James Mooney. P. 129-440» pi.
LYii-Lxxxi, fig. 48-229.
Index to part 1. P. 447-468.
Navaho houses, by Cosmos Mlndeleff. P. 469-517, pi. Lxxxn-zo, fig. 280-244.
Archeological expedition to Arizona in 1895, by Jesse Walter Fewkes. P.
519-744, pi. xcia, xcib-CLxxv, fig. 245-357.
Index to part 2. P. 745-752.
Eighteenth annual report of the Bureau of American Ethnology to
the secretary of the Smithsonian Institution 1896-97 by J. W.
Powell • director In two parts — ^part 1 [-2] [Vignette] Washing-
ton Government Printing Office 1899 [part 1, 1901, part 2, 1902]
Koy. 8®. Two parts, Lvn, 1-518; 619-997 p., 174 pi., 165 fig.
Out of print.
Report of the Director. P. xxni-Lvn.
The Eskimo about Bering strait, by Edward William Nelson. P. 8-518, pi.
i-cvn, fig. 1-165.
Indian land cessions in the United States, compiled by Charles C. Royce»
with an introduction by Cyrus Thomas. P. 521-864, pi. cvni-CLxxiv.
Index. P. 965-097.
Nineteenth annual report of the Bureau of American Ethnology to
the secretary of the Smithsonian Institution 1897-98 by J. W.
Powell director In two parts — part 1 [-2] [Vignette] Washing-
ton Government Printing Office 1900 [1902]
Roy. 8*^. Two parts, xcii, 1-668, 569*-676* ; 669-1160 p., frontis-
piece, 80 pi., 49 fig. Out of print.
Report of the Director. P. ix-xcii, frontispiece.
Bsthetology, or the science of activities designed to give pleasure. P.
Lv-xon.
Myths of the Cherokee, by James Mooney. P. d-{^, pi. i-zx, flg. 1-2.
Index to part 1. P. 649-568, 569*-576*.
Tusayan migration traditions, by Jesse Walter Fewkes. P. 578-688.
LocaUzation of Tusayan clans, by Cosmos Mlndeletf. P. 635-658, pi. zxi-
xxvni, flg. 8.
Mounds in northern Honduras, by Thomas Qann. P. 655-692, pL zzix-
XXXIX, flg. 4-7.
Mayan calendar systems, by Cyrus Thomas. P. .698-819, pi. XL-xuna,
xLin^-xuv, flg. 8-17a, 176-22.
Primitive numbers, by W J McGee. P. 821-851.
Numeral systems of Mexico and Central America, by Qsrrus Thomas. P.
853, 955, flg. 23-41.
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS IX
Tasayan Flute and Snake ceremonies, by Jesse Walter Fewkes. P. 957-
1011, pi. XLV-Lxv, fig. 42-46.
The wild-rice gatherers of the upi«r lakes, a study in American primitive
economics, by Albert Ernest Jenks. P. 1013-1137, pi. lxvi-lxxix, fig.
47-48.
Index to part 2. P. 1188-1160.
Twentieth annual report of the Bureau of American Ethnology to
the secretary of the Smithsonian Institution 1898-99 by J. W.
Powell director [Vignette] Washington Government Printing
Office 1903
Eoy. 8*^. ccxxiv, 237 p., 180 pi., 79 fig. OiU of print.
Report of the Director. P. vii-ccxxui.
Technology, or the science of Industrlea P. xzix-lyu.
Sociology, or the science of institutions. P. ux-cxxxvin.
Philology, or the science of activities designed for expression. P.
CXXXIX-CLXX.
Sophiology, or the science of activities designed to give instruction. P.
CLxxi-cxcvn.
List of publications of the Bureau of American Bthnology. P. cxcix-
ocxxin.
Aboriginal pottery of the eastern United States, by W. H. Holmes. P. 1-201,
pi. I-LXXYIII, LXXVni A, LXXIX-LXXIX B, LXXX-CLXXTn, fig. 1-79.
Index.
Twenty-first annual report of the Bureau of American Ethnology
to the secretary of the Smithsonian Institution 1899-1900 by J. W.
Powell director [Vignette] Washington Government Printing
Office 1903
Roy. 8®. XL, 360 p., 69 pi. Ov^ of print.
Report of the Director. P. vn-xL, pi. i.
Hopl liatclnas, drawn by native artists, by Jesse Walter Fewkes. P. 3-126,
pi. u-Lxni.
Iroquolan cosmology, by J. N. B. Hewitt. P. 127-389, pi. lxiy-lxix.
Index.
Twenty-second annual report of the Bureau of American Eth-
nology to the secretary of the Smithsonian Institution 1900-1901
J. W. Powell director In two parts — ^part 1 [-2] ' [Vignette]
Washington Government Printing Office 1903
Roy. 8*^. Two parts, xliv, 1-320; 1-372 p., 91 pi., 178 fig. Out
of print.
Report of the Acting Director. P. vii-xliv.
Two summers* work in pueblo ruins, by Jesse Walter Fewkes. P. 8-195, pi.
r-Lxx, fig. 1-120.
Mayan calendar systems. II, by Cyrus Tbomas. P. 197-305, pi. lxxx-
Lxxxn, fig. 121-168.
Index to part 1.
The Hako, a Pawnee ceremony, by Alice C. Fletcher, holder of Thaw fellow-
ship, Peabody Museum, Harvard University. P. 5-368, pi. lxxxiu-xci,
fig. 169-178.
Index to part 2.
Z BUREAU OF AMEBICAK ETHNOLOGY
Twenty-third annual report pt the Bureau of American Ethnology
to the secretary of the Smithsonian Institution 1901-2 J. W.
Powell director [Vignette] Washington Government Printing
Office 1904 [1905]
Roy. 8°. XLV, 634 p., 139 pL, 34 fig. Out of print.
Report of the Acting Director. P. th-xlv.
The Zufli Indians, their mythology, esoteric fraternities, and cerenonies, by
Matilda Coxe Stevenson. P. 1-608.
Index.
Twenty-fourth annual report of the Bureau of American Eth-
nology to the secretary of the Smithsonian Institution 1902-3
W. H. Holmes chief [Vignette] Washington Government Print-
ing Office 1907
Roy. 8^ XL, 846 p., 21 pL, 1112 fig. Out of print.
Report of the Chief. P. vn-xL.
Games of the North American Indians, by Stewart GuUn. P. S-809.
Index.
Twenty-fifth annual report of the Bureau of American Ethnology
to the secretary of the Smithsonian Institution 190^-4 [Vignette]
Washington Govermnent Printing Office 1907
Roy. 8°. XXIX, 296 p., 129 pi., 70 fig. Out of print.
Report of the Chief. P. ix-xxix.
The aborigines of Porto Rico and neighboring Islands, by Jesse Walter
Fewkes. P. 3-220, pl. i-xciii, flg. 1-43.
Certain antiquities of eastern Mexico, by Jesse Walter Fewkea P. 221-2S4,
pl. xciv-cxxix, fig. 44-70.
Index.
Twenty-sixth annual report of the Bureau of American Ethnology
to the secretary of the Smithsonian Institution 1904-6 [Vignette]
Washington Government Printing Office 1908
Roy. 8°. XXXI, 512 p., 68 pL, 117 fig. Out of print.
Report of the Chief. P. vii-xxxi. ^
The Pima Indians, by Frank Russell. P. 3-389, pl. i-xlvii, flg. 1-102.
The Tlinglt Indians, by John R. Swanton. P. 391-485, pl. xlvui-lviu, fig.
103-117.
Index.
^ Twenty-seventh annual report of the Bureau of American Ethnol-
ogy to the secretary of the Smithsonian Institution 1905-6 [Vign-
ette] Washington Government Printing Office 1911
Roy. 8^ P. 672, 65 pL, 132 fig.
Report of the Chief. P. 5-14.
The Omaha Tribe, by Alice C. Fletcher, holder of the Thaw fellowship, Pea-
body Museum, Harvard University, and Francis La Flesche, a member
of the Omaha tribe. P. 15-654.
Index.
LIST OF PUBLICATIOKS XI
Twenty-eighth annual report of the Bureau of, American Eth-
nology to the secretary of the Smithsonian Institution 1906-7
[Vignette] Washington Government Printing Office 1912
Roy. 8°. P. 308, xxxv, 103 pL, 68 fig.
BQ;)ort of the ddef. P. 7-22.
Casa Grande, Arizona, by Jesse Walter Fewkes. P. 25-179, pi. 1-78, flg.
1-54. \
Antiquities of the upper Verde Riyer and Walnut Creek* valleys, Arizona,
by Jesse Walter Fewk^ P. 181-220, pi. 79-102, flg. 55-68.
Preliminary report on the linguistic classification of Algonquian tribes, by
Truman Michelson. P. 221-290, pi. 103.
•List of publications of the Bureau of American Ethnology. P. i-zzxy.
Index.
In preparation
Twenty-ninth annual report of the Bureau of American Ethnology
to the secretary of the Smithsonian Institution 1907-8 [Vignette]
Washington Government Printing Office
Roy. 8°.
Report of the Chief.
Bulletins
(1). Bibliography of the Eskimo language by James Constantine
Pilling 1887
8°. V, 116 p. (incl. 8 p. of facsimiles).
(2). Perforated stones from California by Henry W. Henshaw
1887
8°. 84 p., 16 fig.
(3). The use of gold and other metals among the ancient inhabit-
ants of Chiriqui, Isthmus of Darien by William H. Holmes 1887
8^ 27 p., 22 fig.
(4). Work in mound exploration of the Bureau of Ethnology by
Cyrus Thomas 1887
8^. 15 p., 1 fig.
(5). Bibliography of the Siouan languages by James Constantine
Pilling 1887
8^. V, 87 p.
(6). Bibliography of the Iroquoian languages by James C. Pil-
ling 1888 [1889]
8^. VI, 208 p. (incl. 4 p. facsimiles), 5 unnumbered facsimiles.
Out of print.
(7). Textile fabrics of ancient Peru , by William H. Holmes 1889
8*^. 17 p., 11 fig.
(8). The problem of the Ohio mounds by Cyrus Thomas 1889
8^ 54 p., 8 fig.
20903"— 28 ETH— 12 ^21
Zn BUBEAU OF AMEBICAK ETHNOLOGY
(9). Bibliography of the Muskhogean languages by James Con-
stantine Pilling 1889
8°. V, 114 p. Out of print.
(10). The circular, square, and octagonal earthworks of Ohio by
Cyrus Thomas 1889
8°. 86 p., 11 pi., 6 fig. Out of print.
(11). Omaha and Ponka letters by James Owen Dorsey 1891
8**. 127 p. Out of print.
(12). Catalogue of prehistoric works east of the Kocky mountains
by Cyrus Thomas 1891
8^. 246 p., 17 pi. and maps. Out of print.
(13). Bibliography of the Algonquian languages by James Con-
Btantine Pilling 1891 [1892]
8®. X, 614 p., 82 facsimiles. Out of print.
(14). Bibliography of the Athapascan languages by James Con-
stantine Pilling 1892
8®. xni, 126 p. (incl. 4 p. facsimiles). Out of print.
(16). Bibliography of the Chinookan languages (including the
Chinook jargon) by James Constantine Pilling 1893
8^. zm, 81 p. (ind. 3 p. facsimiles). Out of print.
(16). Bibliography of the Salishan languages by James Constan-
tine Pilling 1883
8®. xm, 86 p. (incl. 4 p. facsimiles). Out of print.
(17). The Pamunkey Indians of Virginia by Jno. Garland Pol-
lard 1894
8°. 19 p. Out of print.
(18). The Maya year by Cyrus Thomas 1894
8**. 64 p., 1 pi. Out of print.
(19). Bibliography of the Wakashan languages by James Con-
stantine Pilling. 1894
8°. XI, 70 p. (Incl. 2 p. facsimiles).
(20). Chinook texts by Franz Boas 1894 [1896]
8®. 278 p., 1 pi. Out of print.
(21). An ancient quarry in Indian Territory by William Henry
Hohnes 1894 .
8®. 19 p., 12 pi., 7 fig. Out of print.
(22). The Siouan tribes of the East by James Mooney 1894
[1896]
8®. 101 p., map. Out of print.
(23). Archeologic investigations in James and Potomac valleys
by Gerard Fowke 1894 [1895]
8*=^. 80 p., 17 fig. Out of print.
(24). List of the publications of the Bureau of Ethnology, with
index to authors and subjects by Frederick Webb Hodge 1894
8**. 26 p. Out of print.
U8T OF PUBLICATIOKS XOI
(25). Natick dictionary by James Hammond Trumbull 1903
Roy. 8°. xxvm, 849 p,
(26). Kathlamet texts by Franz Boas 1901
Roy. 8°. 261 p., 1 pi.
(27). Tsimshian texts by Franz Boas 1902
Roy. 8^ 244 p.
(28). Mexican and Central American antiquities, calendar systems,
and history twenty-four papers by Eduard Seler, £. Forstemann,
Paul ScheUhas, Carl Sapper, and E. P. Dieseldorff translated from
the German under the supervision of Charles P. Bowditch 1904
8^ 682 p., 49 pi., 184 fig.
(29). Haida texts and myths by John R. S wanton 1905
Roy. 8''. 448 p., 5 fig.
(30). Handbook of American Indians north of Mexico edited by
Frederick Webb Hodge Pt. 1 1907 Pt. 2 1910
8°. Pt. 1. IX, 972 p., many figures, map. Pt. 2 iv, 1221 p.,
many figures. Out of print.
Reprint, 1912.
(81). List of publications of the Bureau of American Ethnology,
with index to authors and titles 1906
8**. 81 p. Out of print.
(32). Antiquities of the Jemez plateau, New Mexico by Edgar
KHewett 1906
8"*. 65 p., 17 pi., 81 fig., map
(88). Skeletal remains suggesting or attributed to early man in
North America by Ale§ Hrdli^ka 1907
8^ 113 p., 21 pi., 16 fig.
(34). Physiological and medical observations among the Indians
of southwestern United States and northern Mexico by Alefi
Hrdliifka 1908
8°. IX, 460 p., 28 pi., 2 fig. '
(35). Antiquities of the upper Gila and Salt River valleys in
Arizona and New Mexico by Walter Hough 1907
8®. 96 p., 11 pi., 61 fig., map
(36). List of the publications of the Bureau of American Eth-
nology, with index to authors and titles 1907
8®. 31 p. Out t>f print.
(37). Antiquities of central and southeastern Missouri by Gerard
Fowke. (Report on explorations made in 1906-7 under the auspices
of the Archaeological Institute of America) 1910
8®. VII, 116 p., 19 pi., 20 fig.
(38). Unwritten literature of Hawaii The sacred songs of the
hula compiled and translated, with notes and un account of the hula
by Nathaniel B. Emerson, A. M., M. D. 1909
8^. 288 p., 24 pi., 3 fig., 14 musical pieces
XIV BUBEAU OF AMEBICAN ETHNOLOGY
(89). Tlingit myths and texts by John R. Swanton 1909
8®. vin, 451 p.
(40). Handbook of American Indian languages by Franz Boas
Part 1 With illustrative sketches by Holand B, Dixon [Maidu] .
P. E. Goddard [Athapascan: Hupa], William Jones, revised by
Truman Michelson [Algonquian (Fox)], John R. Swanton [Tlingit,
Haida], William Thalbitzer [Eskimo]; [Franz Boas: Introduction,
Chinook, Kwakiutl, Tsimshian; John R. Swanton and Franz Boas,
Siouan] 1911. [Each sketch was issued also in separate form.]
8®. vn, 1069 p.
(41). Antiquities of the Mesa Verde National Park: Spryce-tree
House by J. Walter Fewkes 1909
8®. viii, 67 p., 21 pi., 37 fig.
(42). Tuberculosis among certain Indian tribes of the United
States by Ale§ Hrdlicka 1909
8°. vn, 48 p., 22 pi.
(48). Indian tribes of the lower Mississippi valley and adjacent
coast of the Gulf of Mexico by John R. Swanton 1911
8**. vn, 387 p., 32 pi. (including 1 map), 2 fig.
(44). Indian languages of Mexico and Central America, and their
geographical distribution by Cyrus Thomas, assisted by John R.
Swanton Accompanied with a linguistic map 1911
8*^. VII, 108 p., 1 map
(46). Chippewa music by Frances Densmore 1910
8^. XIX, 216 p., 12 pi., 8 fig., many musical pieces
(47). A dictionary of the Biloxi and Ofo languages, accompanied
with thirty-one Biloxi texts and numerous Biloxi phrases by James
Owen Dorsey and John R. Swanton 1912
8*. V, 340 p.
(48). The Choctaw of Bayou Lacomb, St. Tammany parish,
Louisiana by David I. Bushnell, Jr. .1909
8**. 37 p., 22 pi., 1 fig. Out of print.
(49). List of the publications of the Bureau of American Eth-
nology, with index to authors and titles 1910
8°. 32 p. Out of print. (Second impression 1911, 34 p. Out
of print.)
(50). Preliminary report on a visit to the Navaho National Monu-
ment, Arizona by Jesse Walter Fewkes 1911
8**. VII, 35 p., 22 pL, 3 fig.
(51). Antiquities of the Mesa Verde National Park: Cliff Palace
by Jesse Walter Fewkes 1911
8^. 82.p., 35 pi., 4 fig.
(52). Early man in South America by Ales Hrdlicka in collabo-
ration with William H. Holmes, Bailey Willis, Fred. Eugene Wright,
and Clarence N. Fenner 1912
8^. XV, 405 p., 68 pi., 51 fig.
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS XV
In Press
(40). Handbook of American Indian languages by Franz Boas
Part 2 With illustrative sketches
(46). Choctaw dictionary by Cyrus Byington edited by John R.
Swanton
In Preparation
(58). Chij^pewa music — II by Frances Densmore
(64). The physiography of the Rio Grande valley. New Mexico, in
relation to Pueblo culture: (1) Rio Grande valley, New Mexico, by
Edgar Lee Hewett; (2) Geology and topography of the Rio Grande
region in New Mexico, by Junius Henderson; (3) Climate and evi-
dences of climatic changes, by Junius Henderson and Wilfred W.
Robbins.
(66). The ethnobotany of the Tewa Indians by Wilfred W. Rob-
bins and J. P. Harrington
(56). The ethnozoology of the Tewa Indians by Junius Hender-
son and J. P. Harrington
(67) . The cosmography of the Tewa Indians by J. P. Harrington
(58). An introduction to the study of the Maya hieroglyphs by
Sylvanus G. Morley
CoNTBiBxrriONS TO North A^iebican Ethnoix)gy
{All of the volumes of this seriet are out of print)
Department of the Interior U. S. Geographical and Geological
sur\'ey of the Rocky Mountain region J. W. Powell in charge —
Contributions to North American ethnology — ^Volume I [-VII, IX] —
[Seal of the department] Washington Government Printing Office
1877 [-1893]
4''. 9 vols.
Contents
Volume 1, 1877 :
Part I. Tribes of the extreme Northwest, by W. H. DaU. P. 1-106, 10
unnumbered pL, 9 unnumbered fig., pocket map.
On the distribution and nomenclature of the native tribes of Alaska
and the adjacent territory. P. 7-40, pocket map.
On succession in the shell-heaps of the Aleutian islands. P. 41-81, 10
pi., 0 flg.
On the origin of the Innuit P. 03-106.
Appendix to part i. Linguistics. P. 107-156.
Notes on the natives of Alaska (communicated to the late George
Gibbs, M. D., in 1862), by His Excellency J. Furuhelm, late governor
of the Russian-American colonies. P. 111-116.
Terms of relationship used by the Innuit : a series obtained from natives
of Cumberland inlet, by W. H. Dall. P. 117-119.
XVI BUREAU OF AMEBIC AK ETHNOLOGY
Volume I, 1877 — Continued.
Part I. Vocabularies [by George Gibbs and W. H. Dall]. P. 121-153.
Note on the use of numerals among the Tsim si-an', by George Gibbe,
M. D. P. 165-156.
Part II. Tribes of western Washington and northwestern Oregon, by George
Glbbs. M. D. P. 157-241, pocket map.
Appendix to part ii. Linguistics. P. 243-361.
Vocabularies [by George Gibbs, Wm. F. Tolmie, and G. Mengarlni].
P. 247-283.
Dictionary of the Niskwalll [Nisquallf-Bngllsh and Bnglish-NisqnalllL
by George Gibbs. P. 28&-36L
Volume II, 1890 [1891] :
Tlie Klamath Indians of southwestern Oregon, by Albert Samuel Gatschet
Two parts, evil, 711 p., map; 111, 711 p.
Volume III, 1877 :
Tribes of California, by Stephen Powers. 685 p.« frontispiece, 44 fig. (incL
42 pi.), 3 p. music, pocket map.
Appendix. Linguistics, edited by J. W. Powell. P. 439-613.
Volume IV, 1881 :
Houses and house-life of the American aborigines, by Lewis H. Morgan,
xiv, 281 p., frontispiece, 57 fig. (incl. 28 pi).
Volume V, 1882 :
Observations on cup-shaped and other lapldarian sculptures in the Old
World and in America, by Charles Rau. 1881. 112 p., 61 fig. (form-
ing 35 pis.).
On prehistoric trephining and cranial amulets, by Robert Fletcher, M. R.
C. S. Eng., act. asst. surgeon U. S. Army. 1882. 32 p., 9 pi., 2 fig.
A study of the manuscript Troano, by Cyrus Thomas, Ph. D., with an intro-
duction by D. G. Brinton, M. D. 1882. xxxvii, 237 p., 9 pi., 101 fig.,
25 small unnumbered cuts.
Volume VI, 1890 [1892] :
The (Segiha language, by James Owen Dorsey. xyIII, 794 p.
Volume VII, 1890 [1892] :
A Dakota-English dictionary, by Stephen Return Riggs, edited by James
Owen Dorsey. x, 665 p.
Volume VIII : Not puhliahed.
Volume IX, 1893 [1804] :
Dakota grammar, texts, and ethnography, by Stephen Return Rlggs. edil'ed
by James Owen Dorsey. xxxii, 239 p.
Introductions
{All of the volumes of this aeries are out of fifint)
(1). Introduction to the study of Indian languages, with words,
phrases, and sentences to be collected. By J. W. Powell. [Seal of
the Department of the Interior.] Washington Government Printing
Office 1877
4®. 104 p., 10 blank leaves.
Second edition as follows:
(2) . Smithsonian Institution — Bureau of Ethnology J. W. Powell
director — Introduction to the study of Indian languages with words,
LIBT OF PUBUOATIOKS XVU
phrases and sentences to be collected — ^by J. W. Powell — Second edi-
tion— ^with charts— Washington (jovemment Printing Office 1880
4^. xi, 228 p., 10 blank leaves, 4 kinship charts in pocket. A 16^
^Alphabet" of 2 leaves accompanies the work.
(8). Smithsonian Institution — Bureau of Ethnology — ^Introduc-
tion to the study of sign language among the North American Indians
as illustrating the gesture speech of mankind — ^by Garrick Mallery,
brevet lieut. col., U. S. Army — Washington Government Printing
Office 1880
4®. iv, 72 p., 88 unnumbered figs.
(4) . Smithsonian Institution — Bureau of Ethnology J. W. Powell,
director — Introduction to the study of mortuary customs among the
North American Indians — ^by Dr. H. C. Yarrow act. asst. surg.
U- S. Army — ^Washington Government Printing Office 1880
4^ ix, 114p.
^ Miscellaneous Publications
(AU of the works in thiB series, except No, 9, are out of print)
(1) . Smithsonian .Institution — ^Bureau of Ethnology J. W. Powell,
director — ^A collection of gesture-signs and signals of the North
American Indians with some comparisons by Garrick Mallery bre-
vet lieut. col. and formerly acting chief signal officer, U. S. Army —
Distributed only to collaborators — ^Washington Government Printing
Office 1880
4^ 829 p.
Note. 250 copies printed for use of collaborators only.
(2) . Smithsonian Institution — Bureau of Ethnology J. W. Powell
director — Proof-sheets of a bibliography of the languages of the
North American Indians by James Constantine Pilling — (Distrib-
uted only to collaborators) — ^Washington Government Printing
Office 1885
4^. xl, 1186 p., 29 pi. (facsimiles) .
NoTSL Only 110 copies printed for the use of collaborators, 10 of then on one
side of the sheet. It was the intuition to have this Bibliography form Volume X
of the Contribntions to North American Ethnology, but the work assumed such
proportions that it was subsequently deemed adrisable to publish it as a part ot
the series of Bulletins, devoting a Bulletin to each linguistic stock.
(8) . Linguistic families of the Indian tribes north of Mexico, with
provisional list of the principal tribal names and synonyms. [1885]
16^ 66 p.
NoTSL A few copies printed for the use of the compilers of a Dictionary of
American Indians [Handbook. See BuUetin 30]. It is without title-page, name,
or date, but was compiled from a manuscript list of Indian tribes by James
Mooney.
XVin BUBEAU OF AMEBICAN ETHNOLOGY
(4). [Map of] Linguistic stocks of American Indians north of
Mexico by J. W. Powell. [1891]
Note. A limited edition of this map, which forms plate 1 of the Seventh
Annual Report, was Issaed on heavy paper, 19 by 22 inches, for the use of
students. This map was revised and published In the Report on Indians Taxed
and Not Taxed in the United States at the Eleventh Census, 1890. (See No. 7.)
(5). Tribes of North America, with synonymy. Skittagetan fam-
ily. [1890]
4^ 18' p.
Note. A few copies printed for the use of the compilers of the Handbook of
American Indians. It was prepared by H. W. Henshaw, and contains two
sainples of style for the Handbook, the second beginning on page 7 with the
head, " Dictionary of Indian tribal names." (See BuUetin SO.)
(6). Advance pages Smithsonian Institution Bureau of Amer-
ican Ethnology--;Dictionary of American Indians north of Mexico
... [Vignette] Washington 1903
8°. 83 p.
NoTB. Prepared by F. W. Hodge. Two hundred and fifty copies printed by
the Smithsonian Institution for the use of the compilers of the Dictionary
[Handbook. See Btaietin SO}.
(7) [Map of] Linguistic stocks of American Indians north of
Mexico byj. W.Powell. [1906]
Note. Printed on heavy paper in advance of the Handbook of American
Indians (Bulletin SO), part 1, of which it forms an Ulustration.
(8). Bureau of American Ethnology with list of publications.
Reprinted from Handbook of American Indians^ Bulletin 80 (pt 1),
Bureau of American Ethnology. [1906]
8^ 6 p.
(9). Indian missions north of Mexico by James Mooney. Ee-
printed from Handbook of American Indians^ Bulletin 80 (pt. 1),
Bureau of American Ethnology. Washington 1907
8^ 39 p.
Index to Authors and Tifles
A=Annual Report B=Bulletin. C=CJontrlbutlons to North American Eth-
nology. I=Introduction. M= Miscellaneous Publications.
Aborigines of Porto Rico and neighboring islands (Fewkes)-A zxv, 8.
Actlvltal similarities (PoweU) A iii, Ixv.
Activities. See Esthetology; Philology; Sociology; Sophi-
ology; Technology.
Alaska, Notes on the natlTes of (Furuhelm) C i. 111.
Algonquian languages, Bibliography of the (Pilling) B 13.
tribes, Preliminary report on classification of (Michelson)_A xxvm.
See Bulletin 40 (pt 1).
Amulets, cranial, Prehistoric trephining and (R. Fletcher) «_C v.
LIST OP PUBLICATIONS XIX
Animal carvings from mounds of the Mississippi Talley
(Henshaw) A n, 117.
Anthropologic data, Limitations to the use of some (Powell). A i, 71.
Antiquities, Certain, of eastern Mexico (Fewkes) A txv, 22L
Antiquities; Mayan calendar systems, history, and (F($rste-
mann, Schellhas, Sapper, Seler, Dleseldorff) B 28.
Mexican and Central American calendar systems and
( Seler) B 2a
of central and southeastern Missouri (Fowke) B '87.
of the Jemes plateau. New Mexico (Hewett) B 82.
of the Mesa Verde National Park: Spruce-tree House
(Ffewkes) Ji 41.
Cliif Palace (Fewkes) B 51.
of the upper GUa-Salt valleys (Hough) B 85.
of the upper Verde and Walnut Creek valleys, Arizona
(Fewkes) A xxvm.
Apache, The medlclue-men of the (Bourke) A re, 448.
Archeologlcal expedition to Arizona in 1895 (Fewkes) A xvn, 519.
Archeologic investigations in James and Potomac valleys
( Fowke) B 28.
Architecture of Tusayan and Cibola (V. Mlndeleff) A vm, 8.
Arizona, Aboriginal remains in Verde valley In (C. Mln-
deleff) A xni, 179.
Antiquities of the upper Glla-Salt valleys (Hough) B 85.
Archeologlcal expedition to, in 1895 (Fewkes) A xvn. 519.
Illustrated catalogue of collections from, in 1879 (J. Ste-
venson) ^ A II, 807.
in 1881 (J. Stevenson) A in, 511.
Navaho National Monument, visit tft (Fewkes) B 50.
The cllff-rulns of Canyon de Chelly in (C. Mlndeleff) A xvi, 78.
See Casa Grande; Tusayan.
Art, Ancient, of the province of C;hiriqul,C)olombia (Holmes) A vi, 8.
ceramic. Form and ornament in (Holmes) A iv,487.
in shell of the ancient Americans (Holmes) A n, 179.
Prehistoric textile, of eastern United States (Holmes) A xtn,8.
Stone (Fowke) A xin,47.
textile, A study of the (Holmes) : A vi, 189.
Artists, native, Hopl katclnas drawn by (Fewkes) A xxi,8.
Athapascan languages. Bibliography of the (Pilling) B 14.
See Bulletin 40 (pt. 1). •
Bering strait, Eskimo about (Nelson) A xviii, 8.
Bibliography of the Alonquian languages (Pilling) B 13.
of the Athapascan languages (Pilling) B 14.
of the Chlnookan languages, including the Chinook Jargon
(Pilling) B 15.
of the Eskimo language (Pilling) B 1.
of the Iroquoian languages (Pilling) B 6.
of the languages of the North American Indians. Proof
sheets of (Pilling) M 2.
of the Muskhogean languages (Pilling) B 9.
of the Salishan languages (Pilling) B 16.
of the Siouan languages (Pilling) B 5.
of the Wakashan languages (Pilling) B 19.
Biloxi-Ofo dictionary (Dorsey-S wanton) B 47«
BUBEAU OF AMEBIOAK ETHNOLOGY
Boas, Franz. Chinook texta B 20.
editor. Handbook of American Indian lansniages B 40.
Kathlamet texts B 26.
The Central Eskimo A vi,800.
Tsimshian texts B 27.
Bonrke, John G. The medicine-men of the Apache A ix, 448.
Bowditch, C. P. [Papers translated under the supervision of] .B 28.
Brinton, Daniel G. The graphic system and ancient methods
of the Mayas C v (pt8), xrVL
Bnshnell, David I., Jr. Choctaw of Bayou Lacomb, Lonisiana.B 48.
Byington, Cyrus. Choctaw dictionary (Swanton, editor).— B 46.
Calendar history of the Kiowa Indians (Mooney) A xvn, 129.
Calendar systems, Mayan (Thomas) A xix,608, and
Mayan antiquities, history, and (F5rstemann, Schellhas,
Sapper, Seler, Dleseldorff) B 28.
Mexican and Central American antiquities and ( Seler )._.B 2S,
California, Perforated stones from (Henshaw) B 2.
Tribes of (Powers). C m.
Carvings, Animal, from mounds of the Mississippi Valley
(Henshaw) A n, 117.
Casa Grande, Arizona (Fewkes) A xxvm.
Casa Grande ruin (C. Mindeleff) A xni,289.
The repair of, in 1891 (C. Mindeleff) A xv,816.
Catalogue of collections from New Mexico and Arizona in
1879 (J. Stevenson) A n,807.
of collections from New Mexico in 1880 (J. Stevenson). .A n,428.
of collections from Pueblos in 1881 (J. Stevenson) A in, 611.
of collections made in 1881 (Holmes).* A in, 427.
of linguistic manuscripts In the library of the Bureau of
Ethnology (Pilling) A 1,563.
of prehistoric works east of the Rocky Mountains
(Thomas) B 12.
)Z;egiha language. The (Dorsey) C vi.
Central America, Indian languages of Mexico and (Thomas-
Swanton) B 44.
Numeral systems of Mexico and (Thomas) A xix, 86S.
Central American picture-writing, Studies In (Holden) A i, 206.
and Mexican antiquities and calendar systems (Seler) ..3 28.
Ceremonial of Hasjelti Dailjis nnd mythical sand painting
of the Navajo (J. Stevenson) A vm, 229.
Ceremonies, Tusayan Snake (Fewkes) A xvi, 267.
Ceremony, The Hako, a Pawnee (A. C. Fletcher) A xxii.
Cessions, Indian land, in the United States (Royce-Thomas)A xvni, 621.
of land by Indian tribes to the United States (Royce) A xv, 316.
Cherokee, Myths of the (Mooney) A xix, 8.
nation of Indians, The (Royce) A v, 121.
The sacred formulas of the (Moon^) A vn, 801.
Chlnookan languages, Bibliography of the (Pilling) B 15.
See Bulletin 40 (pt. 1).
Chinook texts (Boas) IX 20.
Chippewa music (Densmore) B 46.
Chippewa music — II (Densmore) B 68.
See OJibwa.
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS ZXI
Ohirlqui, Colombia, Ancient art of the province of (Holmes) -A vi, 8.
The use of gold and other metals among the ancient inhab-
itants of (Holmes) B 3.
Choctaw dictionary (Bylngton), Swanton, editor J3 46.
Choctaw of Bayou Lacomb, Louisiana (Bushnell) B 48.
Cibola, Architecture of Tusayan and (V. Mindeleff) A viii, 3.
See Zufii.
Clans, Tusayan, Ijocalization of (C. Mindeleff) A xiz, 635.
Cliff Palace, Mesa Yerde National Paris, Arizona (Fewkes)-B 51.
Cliff ruins of Canyon de Chelly, Arizona (0. Mindeleff) ^ xvi, 73.
Codices, Maya, Aids to the study of the (Thomas) A vi, 253.
Collections, Illustrated catalogue of, from New Mexic<i and
Arizona in 1879 (J. Stevenson) A ii, 307.
from New Mexico in 1880 (J. Stevenson) A ii, 423.
from pueblos in 1881 (J. Stevenson) A ni, 511.
made In 1881 (Holmes) A m, 427.
Colorado, Antiquities of Mesa Verde National Park: Cliff
Palace (Fewkes) 3 51.
Spruce-tree House (Fewkes) B 41.
Coronado expedition, 1640-1542, The (Winshlp) A xrv, 329.
Cosmography of the Tewa Indians, The (Harrington) B 57.
Cosmology, Iroquoian (Hewitt) A xxi, 127.
Cuba. See Isle of Pines.
Culin, Stewart. Games of the North American Indians A xxiv.
Cults, Slouan, A study of (Dorsey) . A xi, 351.
Cup-shaped and other lapidarian sculptures (Kau) C v.
Cushing, F. H. Outlines of Zufii creation myths A xiu, 321.
Pueblo pottery as Illustrative of Zufii culture growth A iv, 467.
Zufii fetiches A n, 8.
Dakota-English dictionary, A (Riggs) JC vn.
Dakota grammar, text, and ethnography (Iliggs) C ix.
Dall, William H. On masks, labrets, and certain aboriginal
customs -A ni, 67.
Terms of relationship used by the Innuit C z, 117.
Tribes of the extreme Northwest C i, 1.
and Gibbs, Gleorge. Vocabularies of tribes of the extreme
Northwest .C i, 121.
Day qrmbols of the Maya year (Thomas) A xvi, 199.
Densmore, Frances. Chippewa music B 45.
Chippewa music — II B 53.
Dictionary, Biloxl-Ofo (Dorsey-Swanton) B 47.
Choctaw (Bylngton), Swanton, editor * B 46.
Dakota-English (Riggs) C vil
Natick B 25.
of American Indians north of Mexico. Advance pages
(Hodge) Jtf 6.
Dieseldorff, E. P., and others. Mayan antiquities, calendar
systems, and history B 28.
Dixon, Roland B. See Bulletin 40 (pt 1).
Dorsey, J. Owen. Illustration of the method of recording
Indian languages A i, 579.
Omaha and Ponka letters JB 11.
Omaha dwellings, furniture, and implements A xni, 268.
.J
XXn BUBEAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
Dorsey, J. Owen — Continued.
Omaha Boclology A in, 206.
Osage traditions A vi, S73.
Siouan sociology A xv, 206.
study of Siouan cults, A A xi, 851-
The ?)eglha language O vi.
and Swan ton, John R. A dictionary of the Bilozi and
Ofo languages B 47.
editor, A Dalcota-Engllsh dictionary, by Stephen Return
Rlggs C vn.
Dakota grammar, texts, and ethnography, by S. R. Riggs.O ix.
Dwellings, furniture, adR implements, Omaha (Dorsey) A xm. 268.
Earthworks, The circular, square, and octagonal, of Ohio
(Thomas) B 10.
Economics, primitive, A study In American (Jenks) A xix, 1018.
Emerson, N. B. Unwritten literature of Hawaii B 88.
Eskimo about Bering strait, The (Nelson) A xvm, 8.
language, Bibliography of the (Pilling) B 1.
See Bulletin 40 (pt 1).
The Ontral (Boas) A vi, 899.
See Point Barrow ; Ungava district.
Esthetology, or the science of activities designed to give
pleasure (Powell) A xix, Iv.
Ethnobotany. The, of the Tewa Indians ( Bobbin s-Harrin?-
ton) B 66.
Ethnography, grammar, and texts, Dakota (Rlggs) O ix.
Ethnology of the Ungava district (Turner) A xi, 169.
Ethnozoology, The, of the Tewa Indians (Henderson-Har-
rington) B 56.
Evolution of language (Powell) A i, 1.
Expression; Philology, or the science of activities designed
for (Powell) A xx, cxxxix.
Fenner, Clarence N. (coUahorator) . Early man in South
America B 62.
Fetiches, Zufil (Gushing) A n, 8.
Fewkes, Jesse Walter. Aborigines of Porto Rico and neigh-
boring islands A xxv, 8.
Antiquities, Certain, of eastern Mexico A xxv, 221.
of Mesa Verde National Park: Cliff Palace B 61.
Spruce-Tree House B 41.
of the upper Verde River and Walnut Creek valleys,
Arizona A xxvin.
Archeological expedition to Arizona in 1895 A xvn, 619.
Casa Grande, Arizona A xxviii.
Hopi katcinas, drawn by native artists A xxi, 8.
Preliminary report on visit to Navaho National Monument,
Arizona B 50.
Tusayan Flute and Snake ceremonies A xix, 967.
Tusayan katcinas A xv, 246.
Tusayan migration traditions A xix, 678.
Tusayan Snake ceremonies « A xvi, 287.
Two summers* work in pueblo ruins A. xxu.
Fletcher, Alice C. The Hako : a Pawnee ceremony A xxu
and La Flesche, Francis. The Omaha tribe A xxyh
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS XXm
Fletcher, Robert. On prehistoric trephining and cranial
amulets C v.
Florida, The Seminole Indians of (MacCauley) A v, 469.
Flnte and Snake ceremonies, Tusayan (Fewkes) A xix. 957.
Form and ornaments in ceramic art (Holmes) A iv, 437.
Formulas, Sacred, of the Cherokees (Mooney) A vii, 301.
FSrstemann, E., and others. Mayan antiquities, calendar
systems, and history B 28.
Fowke, Gerard, Antiquities of central and southeastern Mis-
souri B 87.
Archeologic inyestigations in James and Potomac valleys— B 23.
Stone art A xiii, 47.
Furniture, dwellings, and implements, Omaha (Dorsey) A ziii, 263.
Furuhelm, J. Notes on the natives of Alaska C i, 111.
Games of the North American Indians (Culln) . A xxiv.
Gann, Thomas. Mounds in northern Honduras A xix, 655.
Gatschet, Albert S. Illustration of the method of recording
Indian languages A i, 579.
The Klamath Indians of southwestern Oregon C il
Gesture signs and signals of the North American Indians
(Mallery ) M 1.
Gesture speech, Introduction to the study of sign language
as illustrating (Mallery) 1 3.
Ghost-dance religion (Mooney) A. xiv, 641.
Gibbs, George. Notes on the use of numerals among the
T'sim-si-an' C i, 155.
Tribes of western Washington and northwestern Oregon..-0 i, 157.
and Dall, W. H. Vocabularies of tribes of the extreme
northwest C i, 121.
Glla-Salt valleys, upper, antiquities of (Hough) 1 B 35.
Goddard, P. E. See Bulletin 40 (pt. 1).
Gold and other metals, Use of, among the ancient inhabit-
ants of Chiriqui (Holmes) B 3.
Grammar, texts, and ethnography, Dakota (Riggs) C ix.
Graphic system and ancient methods of the Mayas (Brinton).C v (pt. 8), xvii.
Halda language. See Bulletin 40 (pt. 1).
texts and myths (Swanton) B 29.
Hako, The: n Pawnee ceremony (A. C. Fletcher) A xxii.
Hale, Edward Everett. Introduction to Natlck Dictionary
(Trumbull) ^ B 25.
Handbook of American Indian languages (Boas, editor) B 40.
of American Indians north of Mexico (Hodgp, editor) B 80.
Harrington, J. P. The cosmography of the Tewa Indians— ft 57.
and Henderson, Junius. The ethnozoology of the Tewa
Indians B 66.
and Bobbins, Wilfred W. The ethnobotany of the Tewa
Indians B 55.
Hasjeltl Dailjis ceremonial of the Navajo (J. Stevenson) -_A vin, 229.
Hawaii. Unwritten literature of (Emerson) B 8a
Henderson, Junius, and Harrington, J. P. The ethnozoology
of the Tewa Indians B 56.
and others. The physiography of the Rio Grande valley,
N. Mex B 54.
/ -
XXVI BUBEAU OP AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
Land cessions, Indllin, in the United States (Royce-Thoma8)-A xvm, 521.
Language, Evolution of (Powell) A i, L
Philology, or the science of (Powell) A xx, zxxix.
Languages, Indian, Handbook of (Boas, editor) B 40.
ninstration of the method of recording (Dorsey, Gatschet,
Rlggs) — A I, 679.
Introduction to the study of (Powell) I 1 and 2.
of Mexico and Central America (Thomas-Swanton) B 44.
of the North American Indians, Proofsheets of a bibli-
ography of the (Pilling) M 2.
The ^giha (Dorsey) C vi.
See Bibliography, Dictionary.
Letters, Omaha and Ponka (Dorsey) B 11.
Lexicology, Comparative, of the Serian and Yuman lan-
guages (Hewitt) A XVIII, 290*.
Limitations to the use of some anthropologic data (Powell) -A i, 71.
Linguistic families of America north of Mexico, Indian
(Powell) A VII, 1.
of the Indian tribes north of Mexico (Moon^) M 3.
See Bulletin 44.
Linguistic manuscripts In the library of the Bureau of Eth-
nology, Catalogue of (Pilling) A i, 553.
Linguistic stocks north of Mexico, map of (Powell) M 4, 7.
List of publications of the Bureau of American Ethnology... B 24, 31, 3d, 49 ;
A xxvni.
Literature of Hawaii, Unwritten (Emerson) B 88.
Louisiana, Choctaw of Bayou Lacomb, St. Tammany parish
(Bushnell) B 48.
MacCauley, Clay. The Seminole Indians of Florida A v, 469.
McC^, W J. Preface to the Pamunkey Indians of Virginia
(PoUard) B 17.
Prefatory note to the Maya year (Thomas) B 18.
Primitive numbers l.A xix, S21.
The Seri Indians A xvu, "L
The Siouan Indians JL xv, 168.
and Mufiiz, M. A- Primitive trephining in Peru A xvi, 8.
Maidu language. See Bulletin 40 (pt. 1).
Mallery, Garrlck. A collection of gesture signs and signals
of the North American Indians, with some comparisons.M 1.
Introduction to the study of sign language among the
North American Indians as illustrating the gesture
speech of mankind I 3.
Pictographs of the North American Indians ; a preliminary
paper A iv, 3.
Picture writing of the American Indians A x, 3.
Sign language among North American Indians compared
with that among other peoples and deaf-mutes A i, 268.
Man, early, in North America, Skeletal remains of
(HrdliCka) :b 88.
Man, Early, in South America (Hrdli^ka and others) B 62.
Manuscripts, linguistic, in the library of the Bureau of Eth-
nology, Catalogue of (Pilling) A i, 563.
Notes on certain Maya and Mexican manuscripts
(Thomas) A in, a
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS
HanuflCFlpt. Troano. A etudy of tbe (Tbomas) C v.
Map of Ungulstlc stockn uortb of Mexico (Potrell) M 4, 7.
Masks, Jabrets, snd certain aboriginal customs (E>all) ^ lu, 67.
Massachusetts. See Nalick.
Mattbewa, Washington. Navajo allveramltlis A ii, 167.
Narajo weayers A ut, 311.
The mountain chaat: a Navajo ceremony -A v. 379,
Maya and Mexican manuBcrlpta, Notes on certain (Thomas) -A iii, 3.
Maya codices. Aids to the study of the (Thomas) A vi, 253.
Maya hieroglyphs. An Introduction to the study of (Morley)-B 58.
Mayan antiquities, calendar systems, and history (F5rste-
mann, Schellbas, Sapper, Seler, Dleseldorff) B 2S.
calendar systems (Thomis) -A xix, 693,
XXII.
Mayas, Graphic system andauclent methods of tiie (Brlntoa)-C v <pt. 3),
Maya year (Thomas) 3 18.
Day aymtxils of the (Thomas) A, xvi, 199,
Medical obaervations among southwestern India us
(Hrdliaa) ,B S4.
Medlclne-men of the Apache, The (Bourke) A ix. 44S.
Menomint Indians, The (HolTman) A xiv, 3.
Mesa Verde National Park, Antiquities of : CllfC Palace
(Fewkea) B Bl.
Spruce-tree House (Fewkes) . B 41.
Metals, Use of gold and other, among the ancient inhabitants
of Chiilqul (Holmes) B 3.
Mexican and Central American antiquities and calendar sys-
tems (Seler) B 2S.
Mexican and Maya manuacrtpts, Notes on certain (Thomas). A ui, 3.
Mexico and Central America, Indlah languages of (Tltomas-
Swanton) B 44.
Numeral systems of (Thomas) A xix, S53.
Mexico, eastern. Certain antlquiUes of (Fawkes) A xxt. 221.
northern. Physiological and medical observations among
the Indians of (HrdlWka) B 34.
Micbelson, Tmman. Preliminary report on the linguistic
classlBcatton of Algonqulan tribes A xxviii.
See Bulletin 40 (pL 1).
Mlde'wlwln or " grand medicine society " of tbe OJibn'o,
The (Hoffman) A vii, 143.
Migration traditions, Tusayan (Fewkes) A xix, 6T3.
Mlndeleff, C. AborigliiBl remains In Verde valtej. Arizona— A xm, 179.
Casa Grande ruhi A im,289.
Cliff-ruins of Canyon de Chelly, Arizona A xvi, 73.
Bepair of Casa Grande ruin tn 1891—
Mlndeleff. V. "
and Clboh
Missions, Indlt
MiselsslppI val
Animal carv
Lower. Indii
Missouri, cent!
XXym BUBEAU OF AMEBIOAN ETHNOLOGY
Mooney, James. Calei|dar history of the Kiowa Indians A xm, 129,
Indian missions north of Mexico M 0.
Linguistic families of Indian tribes north of Mei^co M 3.
-Myths of the Cherokee A xix, 8.
Sacred formulas of the Cherokees A vn, 301.
Slouan tribes of the East B 22.
The Ghost-dance rellgion»,with a sketch of the Sioux out«
break of 1890 A xiv. 641.
Morgan, Lewis H. Houses and house-life of the American
aborigines 0 iv.
Morley, Sylvanus G. An introduction to the study of the
Maya hieroglyphs B 68.
Mortuary customs. Introduction to the study of (Yarrow).. I 4.
of the North American Indians (Yarrow) , A i, 87.
Mound explorations of the Bureau of Ethnology (Thopias) .-A xn, 3 ; B 4.
Mounds, Burial, of the northern sections of the United
States (Thomas) A v, 8.
In northern Honduras (Gann) A xix, 656.
of the Mississippi valley. Animal carvings from (Hen-
Shaw) A n, 117.
Ohio, The problem of the (Thomas) B a
prehistoric, east of the Rocky Mountains, Oatalogue of
(Thomas) B 12.
Mountain chant: a Navajo ceremony (Matthews) A v,379.
MufUz, M. A., and McGfee, W J. Primitive trei^ining in Peru. A xn, 8.
Murdoch, John. Ethnological results of the Point Barrow
expedition A ix, 3.
editor. Ethnology of the Ungava district, Hudson Bay
Territory (Turner) A xi,160.
Music, Chippewa (Densmore) B 46.
Music, Chippewa — II (Densmore) B 63.
Muskhogean languages. Bibliography of the (Pilling) B 0.
Mythology of the North American Indians (Powell) A i, 17.
Myths :
of the Cherokee (Mooney) A xix, 3.
of the Haida (Swanton) i B 29.
of the Iroquois ( Smith) A n, 47.
of the Tllnglt ( Swanton) B 39.
Zufii creation, Outlines of (Cushlng) A xiii,321.
Natlck dictionary (Trumbull), with introduction by Edward
Everett Hale B 26.
Navaho houses (C. Mindeleff) A xvii,469.
National Monument, Arizona, visit to (Fewkes) B 60.
Navajo ceremony, The mountain chant, a (Matthews) A v,879.
Indians, Ceremonial of Hasjeltl Dailjis and mythical sand
painting of the (J. Stevenson) A vin, 229.
silversmiths (Matthews) A n, 167.
weavers (Matthews) A ni,371.
Nelson, E. W. The Eskimo about Bering strait A xvui,3.
New 'Mexico, Illustrated catalogue jqI collections from, in
1879 (J. Stevenson) A n,307.
in 1880 (J. Stevenson) A u,423.
in 1881 (J. Stevenson) A iii, 611.
LIST OF PtTBUCATlOMS
New Mexico — Continued.
JemespIateaa.Antlqaltlesoftbe (Hewett) B S2.
Rio Grande valley. The ph]rBloKn>Pli7 of tbe (Hewitt, Hen-
derson, and Bobbins) „B 64.
npper GUa-Salt TalleyB, Antiquities of tbe (Hougli) B 86.
Northwest, extreme. Tribes of the (Dall) O 1.1.
Notes on tlie nativeB of Alaska (Puruhelm) C i. 111.
Numbers, PrimlUve (McOee) A xix.821.
Nnmerals, Note on the use of, among tbe T'sim gl-an' ( Glbbs) . C t, 166.
Numeral systems of Mexico and Central America (Thomas) ...A xix, 86S.
Ofo, Blloxi-, dictlonarf (Dorsey-S wanton) B 47.
Ohio mounds, The probl«» of the' CniomaB) B 8.
Ohio, The circular, square, and octagonal earthworks of
(Thomas) S 10.
OJibwa, The Mldfi'wlwln or "grand medicine society" of
the (HofFman) A V]i,148.
See Chippewa.
Omaba and Ponka letters (Dorsey) B 11.
Omaha dwellings, furniture, and Implements (Dorsey) A xiii,268.
sociology (Dorsey) A iii,20D.
tribe, The (Fletcher-La Fleecbe) A xznL
Opinions ; Sophlology, or the science of (Powell ) -A zx, clxxl.
Orwon, northweatem. Tribes of (Gibbs) G i.lST.
southwestern, The Klamath Indians of (Gatscbet) C n.
Osage traditions (Dorsey) -A vi.ara.
Pamnnkey Indiana of Vli^nla (Pollard) B 17.
Pawnee ceremony, Tbe Hako, a (A. C. Fletcher) A xxii.
Perforated stones from Csllfomta (Henshaw) B 2.
Pern, ancient. Primitive trephining in (MnfilE-McOee) A xn, 8.
Textile fabrics of (Holmes) B 7.
Philology, or the science of activities designed fur expres-
sion (Powell) A
Physiography, The, of tbe Rio Grande valley, N. Mex., In
relation to Pueblo culture (Hewett, Henderson, and
Robbins) B 64.
Physiological and medical observatlonB (HrdllEka).. B 34.
Plctograpbs of the North American Indians (Mallery) A tr.S.
Picture-writing of the American Indians (Mallery) A x,8.
Studies In Central American (Holden) A i, 206.
Pilling, J. C. Bibliography of the Algonqnian languages B 13.
Bibliography of tbe Athapascan languages B 14.
Bibliography of tbe Chlnookan languages B 15.
Bibliography of the Eskimo language B 1.
Blbllograpby of the Iroquoian languages B 6.
BlblloRraphy of the Mnskbogean languages B 0.
XXX BUBEAU OF AMEBICAN ETHNOLOGY
Pima Indians, The (Russell) A xxvi,3.
Pleasure; Esthetology, or tlie science of activities designed
to give (Powell) A xix, Iv.
Point Barrow expedition, Ethnological results of the
(Murdoch) A ix, 3.
Pollard, J. G. The Pamunkey Indians of Virginia B 17.
Ponka and Omaha letters (Dorsey) B 11.
Porto Rico and neighboring islands, Aborigines of
(Fewkes) A xxv,3.
Potomac and James valleys, Archeologic investigations in
(Fowke) B 23.
Potomac-Chesapeake tidewater province, Stone Implements
of (Holmes) A xv, 3.
Pottery, Aboriginal, of the eastern United States (Holmes) -A xx, 3.
Ancient, of the Mississippi valley (Holmes) A iv,361.
of the ancient Pueblos (Holmes) A iv, 257.
Prehistoric textile fabrics of the United States, derived
from impressions on (Holmes) A iii, 3d3.
Pueblo, A study of, as illustrative of Zufii culture growth
(Gushing) A IV. 467.
Powell, J. W. Esthetology, or the science of activities de-
signed to. give pleasure A xix, Iv,
Indian linguistic families of America north of Mexico A vii, 1.
Introduction to the study of Indian languages, with words,
phrases, and sentences to be collected I land 2.
Map of linguistic stocks of American Indians north of
Mexico M 4, 7.
On activital similarities A iii, Ixv.
On limitations to the use of some anthropologic data A i, 71.
On regimentation A xv, civ.
On the evolution of language A i, 1.
Philology, or the science of activities designed for expres-
sion A XX, cxxxix.
Sketch of the mythology of the North American Indians.. A i, 17.
Sociology, or the science of institutions A xx, lix.
Sophiology, or the science of activities designed to give
instruction A xx, clxxi.-
Technology, or the science of Industries A xx, xxlx.
Wyandot government : a short study of tribal society A i, 57.
editor. Linguistics (of the tribes of Oalifomla) C iii, 439.
Powers, Stephen. Tribes of California C iii.
Prehistoric trephining and cranial amulets (R. Fletcher) — C v.
Primitive numbers (McGee) A xix, 821.
Problem of the Ohio mounds, The (Thomas) B 8.
Proof sheets of a bibliography of the languages of the North
American Indians (Pilling) M 2.
Publications of the Bureau of American Ethnology, List of..B 24, 31. 36, 49;
A xxviir.
Pueblo architecture: Tusayan and Cibola (V. Mindeleff) A viii,3.
culture, The physiography of the Rio Grande valley,
N. Mex.. in relation to (Hewett and others) B 54.
pottery as illustrative of Zufli culture growth (Cushiug)__A nr,467.
ruins. Two summers* work in (Fewkes) — A xxii.
LIST OP PUBLICATIONS
Pueblos, ancient, Pottery of the (Holmes) A iv, 267.
Quarry, Ancient, in Indian Territory (Holmes) B 21.
Radin, Paul. The Winnebago tribe A xxiz.
Rau, Charles. Observations on cup*shaped and other lapi-
darian sculptures in the Old World and in America C v.
Regimentation (Powell) A xv, civ.
Relationship, Terms of, used by the Innuit (Dall) C i, 117.
Religion, Qhost-dance (Mooney) A xiv. 641.
Religious life of the Zufii child (M. C. Stevenson) A v,533.
Rice gatherers of the upper lakes (Jenks) A xiz, 1018.
Riggs. Stephen R. Dakota-English dictionary C vii.
Dakota grammar, texts, and ethnography C ix.
Illustration of the method of recording Indian languages— A i, 579.
Rio Grande valley, N. Mex., The physiography of the (Hew-
ett, Henderson, and Robbins) B 54.
Robbins, Wilfred W., and Harrington, J. P. The ethnobot-
any of the Tewa Indians B 55.
and others. The physiography of the Rio Grande valley,
N.Mex B 54.
Royce, G. C. Cessions of lands by Indian tribes to the
United States: illustrated by those in the State of
Indiana A i, 247.
Indian land cessions in the United States A xviii, 521.
The Cherokee nation of Indians a A v, 121.
Ruin, Casa Grande (C. Mindeleff) A xni,289.
Repair of, in 1801 (C. Mindeleff) A xv,316.
See Twenty-eighth annual report.
Ruins, aiff, of Canyon de Chelly (C. MindeleflP) A xvi, 73.
pueblo, Two summers' work in (Fewkes) A xxii.
Russell, BYank. The Pima Indians A xxvr, 3.
Sacred formulas of the Cherokees (Mooney) A vii, 301.
Salishan languages, Bibliography of the (Pilling) B 16.
Salt, upper Gila-, valleys, Antiquities of the (Hough) B 35.
Sand painting of the Navajo Indians, Mythical (J. Steven-
son) A VIII, 229.
Sapi)er, Carl, and others. Mayan antiquities, calendar sys-
tems, and history B 28.
Schellhas, Paul, and others. Mayan antiquities, calendar
systems, and history B 28.
Sculptures, cup-shaped and other lapidarian. Observations
on (Rau) O v, 1.
Seler, Eduard, and othera Mexican and Central American
antiquities, calendar systems, and history B 28.
Seminole Indians of Florida, The (MacCauley) *. A v,469.
Serian and Yuman languages, Comparative lexicology of
(Hewitt) A XVII, 299*.
Seri Indians, The (McGee) A xvii,l.
Shell, Art in, of the ancient Americans (Holmes) A ii, 179.
Sla, The (M. C. Stevenson) A xi,3.
ZXXn BUBEAU OF AMEBICAN ETHNOLOGY
Sign language among North American Indians (Mallery) A i, 263.
Introduction to the study of (Mallery) I 3.
Signals, gesture-signs and, of the North American Indians
(Mallery) M 1.
Silversmiths, Navajo (Matthews) A n, 167.
Similarities, activltal (Powell) A ni,lxv.
Siouan cults, A study of (Dorsey) '. A xi, 351.
Indians, The (McGJee) Jl xv, 153.
languages, Bibliography of the (Pilling) B 5.
See Bulletin 40 (pt. 1).
sociology (Dorsey) A xv, 206.
tribes of the East (Mooney) B 22.
Sioux outbreak of 1890 (Mooney) A xiv, 641.
Skeletal remains suggesting or attributed to early man in
North America (HrdliCka) B 33.
Smith, Erminnie A. Myths of the Iroquois A n, 47.
Snake and Flute ceremonies, Tusayan (Fewkes) A xix, 057.
Snake ceremonies, Tusayan (Fewkes) A xvi, 267.
Sociology, Omaha (Dorsey) A in, 260.
or the science of institutions (Powell) A xx, llx.
Siouan (Dorsey) A xv, 205.
Sophiology, or the science of activities designed to give in-
struction (Powell) A XX, clxxL
South America, Early man in (Hrdli^a and others) B 62.
Spruce-tree House, Mesa Yerde National Park (Fewkes)— .B 41.
Stevenson, James. Ceremonial of Hasjelti Dailjis and
mythical sand painting of the Navajo Indians A vin, 229.
Illustrated catalogue of collections obtained from the
Indians of New Mexico and Arizona in 1879 A u, 307.
Illustrated catalogue of collections obtained from the
Indians of New Mexico in 1880 A ii, 423.
Illustrated catalogue of collections obtained from the
pueblos of Zufii, New Mexico, and Wolpi, Arizona, in
1881 A m. 511.
iStevenson, Matilda G. The religious life of the Zufli child. ^ v, 533.
The Sia A xi, 3.
The Zufii Indians, their mythology, esoteric fraternities,
and ceremonies A xxin.
Stevenson, Tilly E. See Stevenson, Matilda C.
Stone art (Fowke) . A xiii, 47.
Stone implements of the Potomac-Chesapeake tidewater
province (Holmes) A xv, 3.
Stones, Perforated, from California (Henshaw) B 2.
Studies in Central American picture-writing (Ilolden) A i, 205.
Study of Pueblo architecture, A (V. Mindeleff) A viii.
of Siouan cults, A (Dorsey) A xi, 351.
. of the manuscript Troano, A (Thomas) O v.
Swanton, J. R., Haida texts and myths B 29.
Indian tribes of the lower Mississippi Valley and adjacent
coast of the Gulf of Mexico B 43.
Tlingit Indians, The A xxvi, 391.
Tllnglt myths and texts B 39.
and Dorsey, James Owen. Biloxl-Ofo dictionary B 47.
UST OF PUBLICATIONS XXXIU
Swanton, J. R. — Ck)]itinued.
and Thomas, Cyma Indian languages of Mexico and Cen-
tral America B 44.
editor. Choctaw dictionary (Bylngton) ^ 46.
See Buletin 40 (pt 1).
Symbols, Day, of the Maya year (Thomas) A xvi, 199.
Synonymy, Skittagetan (Henshaw) * M 6.
Technology, or the science of industries (Powell) A xx, xxnc.
Tewa Indians, The cosmography of the (Harrington) B 57.
ethnobotany. The, of the (Robbins-Harrington) B 65.
ethnozoology. The, of the (Henderson-Harrington) B 66.
Textile art. Form and ornament in (Holmes) A vi, 189.
Prehistoric, of eastern United States (Holmes) A xni, 3.
Textile fabrics of anci^it Peru (Holmes) B 7.
Prehistoric, of the United States (Holmes) A in, 893.
Texts:
Blloxi (Dorsey-Swanton) B 47.
Chinook (Boas) B 20.
grammar, and ethnography, Dakota (Riggs) ^C ix.
Haida (Swanton) B 29.
Kathlamet (Boas) B 26.
Tlingit (Swanton) B 89.
Tsimshian (Boas) B 27.
Thalbltzer, William. See Bulletin 40 (pt. 1).
Thomas, Gyrus. Aids to the study of the Maya codices A vi, 263.
A study of the manuscript Troano 0 v.
Burial mounds of the northern sections of the United
States A v, 8.
Catalogue of prehistoric works east of the Rocky Moun-
tains B 12.
Day symbols of the Maya year A xvi, 199.
Introduction to Indian land cessions (Royce) A xviii, 521.
Mayan calendar systems ^ A xrx, 693, and
XXII.
Notes on certain Maya and Mexican manuscripts A m, 3.
Numeral systems of Mexico and Central America A znc, 853.
Report on the mound explorations of the Bureau, of Eth-
nology A XII, 3.
The circular, square, and octagonal earthworks of Ohio — B 10.
The Maya year : B 18.
The problem of the Ohio mounds B 8l
Work in mound exploration of the Bureau of Bthnology— B 4.
and Swanton. Indian languages of Mexico and Ontral
America B 44.
Tllnglt Indians, The (Swanton) A xxvi, 391.
language. See Bulletin 40 (pt. 1).
myths and texts (Swanton) B 39.
Traditions, Osage (Dorsey) A vi, 378.
Tusayan migration (Fewkes) A xix, 573.
Trephining, Prehistoric, and cranial amulets (R. Fletcher)— C v.
Primitive, in Peru (Mufiiz-McGee) A xvi, 8.
Tribal society; Wyandot government: A short study of
(Powell) A I, 57.
XXXIV BUREAU OF AMBBICAN ETHNOLOGY
Tribes, certain Indian, of the United States, Tuberculosis
among (Hrdll^ka) B 42.
Tribes of California (Powers) O in, 1.
of North America, with synonymy. Sklttagetan family
(Henshaw) M 6.
of the extreme northwest (Dall) t, O i, 1.
of the lower Mississippi Valley and adjacent coast of the
Gulf of Mexico (Swanton) B 43.
of western Washington and northwestern Oregon (GibbB).C i, 157.
Troano manuscript, A study of the (Thomas) C v.
Trumbull, J. H. Natick dictionary B 25.
Tsimshlan language. See Bulletin 40 (pt. 1).
Texts (Boas)_« B 27.
T*slm si-an', Note on the use of numerals among the (Glbbs)-G i, 156.
Tuberculosis among certain Indian tribes of U. S. (Hrdll^a ) -B 42.
Turner, Lucien M. Ethnology of the Ungava district, Hud-
son Bay territory A xi, 159.
Tusayan and Cibola, architecture of (V. Mindeleff) A viii, 3.
Tusayan clans. Localization of (C. Mindeleff) A xix, 635.
Flute and Snake ceremonies (Fewkes) A xix, 957.
katcinas (Fewkes) A xv, 245.
migration traditions (Fewkes) A xix, 573.
Snake ceremonies (Fewkes) A xvi, 267.
Ungava district, Ethnology of the (Turner) A xi, 159.
Upper lakes, Wild-rice gatherers of the (Jenks) A xix, 1013.
Verde (upper) river and Walnut creek valleys, Arizona,
Antiquities of (Fewkes) A xxviii.
Verde valley. Aboriginal remains in (C. Mindeleff) A xiii, 179.
Virginia, The Pamunkey Indians of (Pollard) B 17.
Vocabularies of tribes of the extreme northwest (Gibbs-
Dall) , C I, 121.
See Bibliography; Dictionary; Languages; Linguistic.
Wakashan languages, Bibliography of the (Pilling) B 19.
Walnut creek and upper Verde river valleys, Arizona,
Antiquities of (Fewkes) A xxviii.
Washington, western. Tribes of (Gibbs) C i, 157.
Weavers, Navajo (Matthews) ^ A iii, 371.
Welfare; Technology, or the science of activities designed
for (Powell) A XX, xxix.
West Indies. See Porto Rico.
Wild-rice gatherers of the upper lakes (Jenks) A xix, 1013.
Willis, Bailey (collaborator). Early man in South America.B 52.
Winnebago tribe, The (Radin) A xxix.
Winshlp, G. P. The Coronado expedition, 1540-1542 ^— A xiv, 329.
Wolpl, Arizona, Illustrated catalogue of collections from, In
1881 (J. Stevenson) A iii, 511.
Wright, Fred E. {collaborator). Early man in South Amer-
ica B 52.
Wyandot government: A short study of tribal society
(Powell) A 1,57.
LIST OP PUBLICATIONS i:
Tarrow, H. C. A furtber contribution to the study of the
mortaary cuetoms of the Kortb American Indians A I, ST.
Introduction to the study of mortuary customs among the
North American Indiana 1 4.
Yuman and Serian languages, Comparative lexicology of
(Hewitt) A ivii. 299«.
ZuW child, The religious Hie of the (T, E. Sterenson) A v, 6S3.
creation myths, Outlines of (Cusbing) ^.A xiu, 321.
culture growth, Pueblo pottery as Illustrative of (Cusb-
ing) A IV, 467.
fetlcties (Gushing) -.
Zufll Indians (M. C. Stevenson) A
Zufil, Xew Mexico, Illustrated catalogue of collections from,
fnlSSl (J. Stevenson) A
See Cibola; Coronado.
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